P2 Flashcards
AR 40-8
6 hour restriction:
Centrifuge run- and no residual effects
12 hour restrictions:
A: Anesthesia- local
S: Simulator sickness- after last symptoms subside start clock (time starts after last symptom gone)
I: Immunizations
A: Alcohol- after 12 hours and no residual effects (time starts from last drink)
24 hours restrictions:
P: Plasma- not regular (> 2x/year)
H: Hypobaric chamber runs/decompression experience- >25,000 feet- no high altitude flight duties for 24 hours, or if below 10,000 may fly before 24 hours
S: Scuba- If urgent operational requirements, may fly within 24 hours of SCUBA diving
48 hour restrictions:
A: Anesthesia- general
72 hour restrictions:
B: Blood- not regular (> 2x/year)
Engine Oil Pressure
with note
Y = 50 PSI Minimum below 78%N1
G = 90 PSI Minimum from 78% - 94% N1
G = 115 PSI Minimum above 94% N1
(double wide arc=torque meter accurate)
R = 50 PSI Minimum, 130 PSI Maximum
NOTE
During cold temperature operation the oil pressure may exceed the maximum of 130 PSI. Stabilize the engine at idle speed of 60 to 64% until the engine oil temperature is above 0*C and the engine oil pressure is within normal limits.
Engine Oil Temperature
G = 0C to 107C Continuous Operation
R = 107*C Maximum
Engine Icing
A. Engine anti-ice shall not be used in ambient temperatures above 4*C.
B. Engine anti-icing shall be ON for flight in visible moisture in temperature 4*C or below.
Transmission Oil Pressure
G = 30-50 PSI Continuous Operation
R = 30 PSI Minimum, 70 PSI Maximum
Transmission Oil Temperature
G = 15C to 110C Continuous Operation
R = 110*C Maximum
Loadmeter
70% Maximum
Fuel Pressure Gauge
R = 4 PSI Minimum
G = 4-30 PSI Continuous Operation
R = 30 PSI Maximum
|> 8 PSI Minimum - Type A, A-1, JP-5, JP-8 fuel below -18C (0F) to -32C (-25F)
(With load meter)
Airspeed Indicator
w/ note
NOTE
Autorotation above 100 KIAS will result in high rates of descent and low rotor RPM.
G = 0-130 Knots Continuous Operation
R = 130 Knots Maximum
B = 100 Knots Maximum for Autorotation
Vne for internal Gross Weight above 3,200 pounds is 78 KIAS, not to exceed placarded Vne.
Turbine Outlet Temperature gauge
NOTE
The red warning light illuminates when either of the following conditions are exceeded: 810 to 927C for 10 seconds, or higher than 927C.
G = 100 - 738*C Continuous Operation
Y = 738 - 810*C Take-off Power Range (5 minute limit)
R = 810C Maximum
810 - 843C, 6 second transient (Not to be used intentionally).
R = 927*C Maximum during Starting and Shutdown (10 seconds Maximum)
Gas Producer (N1) gauge
G = 60-105% Continuous Operation
R = 105% Maximum
105-106% Transient (15 seconds Maximum)
Rotor Limitations
(On dual tachometer)
R = 90% Minimum Operation
Y = 50-60% Accelerate through this range
G = 90-107% Normal Operation
R = 107% Maximum
Power on Transient Rotor Droop Limit is 95% (5 seconds Maximum)
Power Turbine (N2) Gauge
R = 97% Minimum Operation
G = 97-100% Continuous Operation
R = 100% Maximum
N2 75%-88%, 60 seconds Maximum (time not cumulative)
N2 Transient Overspeed Chart
From 0 to 32% torque, engine RPM may be between 100 and 107%. From 32 to 100% torque, the engine rpm decreases linearly from 107 to 103%.
“N2 transient overspeed limit is 15 seconds Maximum. Shaded area represents allowable overspeed.”
Torque Meter
G = 0-85% Continuous Operation
Y = > 85-100% Take-off Power Range (5 minute limit)
R = 100% Maximum
Transient Torque Limit is 100-110% (5 second Maximum)
INTENTIONAL USE IS PROHIBITED.
Fuel Quantity Indicator
On Empty
84.1 gallons max
82.6 gallons issuable
Low fuel light illuminated at 12 gallons
Wind Limitations
with note
A. The helicopter can be started in a maximum wind velocity of 45 knots and a maximum gust spread of 15 knots.
NOTE
Gust spreads are not normally reported. To obtain spread, compare minimum and maximum velocities.
B. Maximum wind for hovering is 35 knots crosswind and 30 knots tailwind.
C. For hover operations at gross weights above 3200 lbs:
1. IGE maneuvers - refer to chapter 8. 2. OGE maneuvers - calm wind only.
Engine Anti Ice Limitations
A. Engine anti-ice shall not be used in ambient temperatures above 4*C.
B. Engine anti-icing shall be ON for flight in visible moisture in temperature 4*C or below.
Engine Starter Limits
A. If there is no rise in TOT within the first 20 seconds of energizing starter, limit starter energizing time to the following:
External Power 25 seconds- ON 30 seconds- OFF 25 seconds- ON 30 seconds- OFF 25 seconds- ON 30 minutes- OFF
Battery 40 seconds- ON 60 seconds- OFF 40 seconds- ON 60 seconds- OFF 40 seconds- ON 30 minutes- OFF
B. If there is a rise in TOT within the first 20 seconds of energizing starter, limit starter energizing time to the following:
External/Battery Power 1 minute- ON 1 minute- OFF 1 minute- ON 1 minute- OFF 1 minute- ON 30 minutes- OFF
Engine Starting Limits
During starting if N1 does not reach 58% in a total time of 45 seconds (or 60 seconds below 10C FAT), close throttle and press starter button until TOT is below 200C. If engine fails to start on third attempt, abort start and make an entry on DA Form 2408-13-1. Starter engage time limits above do not apply to engine starting limitations should abort start procedures become necessary.
Engine RPM Limitations
Use of throttle to control RPM is not authorized. (Refer to Chapter 9, Emergency Procedures and the USAAWC Flight Training Guide for exceptions.)
TOT Limits
CAUTION
Exceeding the limits of 810*C TOT or 100% torque may cause N1 topping with resultant rotor droop.
- Longitudinal Center of Gravity Limits
VMC Center of Gravity Limits are from station 106.0 to 114.2; however, the forward and aft limits are variable depending upon gross weight and aircraft configuration (Refer to Center of Gravity vs Gross Weight Chart in Chapter 6)
Lateral Center of Gravity Limits
Lateral CG Limits Cary depending on longitudinal CG location. (Refer to Later vs Longitudinal CG Limits Chart in Chapter 6.)
A. 3.0 inches left of helicopter centerline B. 4.0 inches right of helicopter centerline.
Weight Limitations
A. Maximum allowable ramp weight is 3350 pounds.
B. Maximum allowable gross weight for hover/flight is 3350 pounds.
C. Minimum front seat weight is 170 pounds.
*VMC Airspeed Limitations
NOTE
All airspeed values are Indicated Airspeed (IAS), except when Calibrated Airspeed (CAS) is specifically stated.
A. At 3,000 pounds gross weight and below:
VMC Vne 130 KIAS sea level to 3,000 feet density altitude. Decrease Vne 3.5 KIAS per 1,000 feet above 3,000 feet density altitude. Maximum density altitude- 20,000 feet.
B. Above 3,000 pounds gross weight:
VMC Vne 122 Knots sea level to 3,000 feet density altitude. Decrease Vne 7.0 KIAS per 1,000 feet above 3,000 feet density altitude. Maximum density altitude- 13,500 feet.
C. Vne for internal GW above 3,200 pounds is 78 KIAS, not to exceed placarded Vne.
Flight Restrictions for High Power
Vne 80 Knots with >85% to 100% Torque applied.
Aerobic Flight Maneuvers
Aerobic maneuvers are prohibited. Aerobic flight is defined to be any intentional maneuver involving an abrupt change in aircraft attitude, an abnormal attitude, pitch angle greater than 30 degrees or roll angles greater than 60 degrees, or abnormal acceleration not necessary for normal flight.
Loss Of Tail Rotor Effectiveness
Ch 8
Loss of tail rotor effectiveness (LTE) is the occurrence of an uncommanded and rapid right yaw rate which does not subside of its own accord and which, if not quickly reacted to, can result in loss of aircraft control.
- Weathercock stability: 120-240*, Winds will attempt to weathervane A/C into the wind, makes slow uncommanded yaw to left or right
- Vortex ring: 210-330*, Causes vortex ring state around the tail rotor which causes tail rotor thrust variations; uncommanded pitch, roll, yaw excursions; maintaining precise heading will be impossible; pilot workload is high
- Disc vortex: 280-330*, Main rotor tip vortices are directed onto the tail rotor; tail rotor operated in extremely turbulent environment; make sudden, uncommanded right yaw which may develop into a spin if uncorrected
Other factors:
- gross weight and density altitude: an increase will decrease the power margin between maximum power available and power required to hover
- low indicated airspeed: Airspeeds below ETL, tail rotor must produce almost 100% of directional control
- power droop: rapid power increase may cause transient power droop; any decrease in main rotor RPM will cause decrease in tail rotor thrust
TH-67 pilots should:
Try to keep heading into the wind
Greater susceptibility to right turns
(Especially right downwind turns at low altitude/low airspeed)
Thunder Storm
To minimize the effects of thunderstorms encountered in flight, perform the following:
1. Torque: Adjust torque to a value corresponding to maximum endurance airspeed.
2. Occupants: Check that all occupants are seated with seat belts and harnesses tightened.
3. PITOT HTR switch(es) - ON.
4. Avionics - Reduce volume on any equipment affected by static.
5. Interior lights - Adjust to full bright at night to minimize blinding effect of lightning.
b. In the storm:
1. Maintain a level attitude and constant power setting. Airspeed fluctuations should be expected and disregarded.
2. Maintain original heading, turning only when necessary.
3. The altimeter is unreliable, due to differential barometric pressures within the storm. An indicated gain or loss of several hundred feet is not uncommon and should be allowed for in determining minimum safe altitude.
Spike Knock
Spike knock occurs when the round pin in the drag-pin fitting contacts the side of the square hole of the pylon stop, which is mounted to the roof. It creates a loud noise and will occur during a rocking of the pylon. The following factors can cause spike knock: low rotor RPM, extreme asymmetric loading, poor execution of an autorotational landing, and low G maneuvers below +.5 Gs.
Spike knock will be more prevalent during zero ground run autorotational landings than for sliding autorotational landings and running landings.
Spike knock in itself is not hazardous but is an indicator of a condition that could be hazardous. If spike knock is encountered, an entry must be made on the DA Form 2408-13-1 to include the flight conditions under which the spike knock occurred. An inspection will be performed by maintenance personnel before continuing.
During landing, starting, and rotor coastdown, spike knock could also occur, especially if there are high winds and/or the elastomeric damper is deteriorated. This type of spike knock is not considered damaging to the aircraft and does not require an entry in DA Form 2408-13-1.
Lightning Strike
WARNING
Avoid flight in or near thunderstorms, especially in areas of observed or anticipated lightning discharges.
NOTE
Abnormal operating noises almost always accompany rotor damage, but loudness or pitch is not valid indications of the degree of damage sustained.
If lightning strike occurs, or is expected, the following precautions are recommended to minimize further risk:
1. Reduce airspeed as much as practical to maintain safe flight.
2. Avoid abrupt control inputs.
Lightning Strike
Ch 9
A. Land as soon as possible
B. emergency shutdown- accomplish after landing.
Land as soon as possible
Land without delay to the nearest suitable area (ie. open field) in which a safe approach and landing is reasonably assured. (The primary consideration is to ensure the survival of the occupants.)
Land as soon as practicable
The landing site and duration of the flight are at the discretion of the pilot. Extended flight beyond the nearest approved landing area is not recommended. (The primary consideration is the urgency of the emergency.)
Autorotate
The term autorotate is defined as adjusting the flight controls as necessary to establish an autorotational descent and landing.
- Collective - adjust as required to maintain rotor RPM (90-107%).
- Pedals - adjust. Crab or slip as required.
- Throttle - adjust as necessary. Close as required.
- Airspeed - adjust as required.
Emergency Shutdown
The term emergency shutdown is defined as engine shutdown without delay.
- Throttle - CLOSE
- Fuel Valve Switch - OFF
- BATT Switch - OFF as desired. Before turning the battery switch off during an in-flight emergency, the pilot should consider a “MAYDAY” call, selecting emergency on the transponder and the possible effects of total electrical failure.
Autorotational Airspeeds
- Airspeed for minimum rate of descent is 52 knots.
2. Airspeed for maximum glide distance is 69 knots.
Partial or Complete Power Loss
warning
Do not respond to the RPM warning system by entering autorotation and reducing the throttle without first confirming engine malfunction by one or more of the other indications. Normal indications signify that the engine is functioning properly and that there is a tachometer generator failure or an open circuit to the warning system, rather than an actual engine malfunction.
Partial or Complete Power Loss
indications
The indications of an engine malfunction, either a partial or a complete power loss are: left yaw, drop in engine RPM (N1 and N2), drop in rotor RPM, low RPM audio alarm (steady tone), illumination of the LOW ROTOR RPM caution light, and change in engine noise. If the power loss is total, the ENGINE OUT warning light will activate and an intermittent (warbling) tone will be heard.
Engine failure at a hover
Autorotate
Emergency Shutdown - Accomplish after landing.
Engine Failure- Low Altitude/Low Airspeed or Cruise
Autorotate
Emergency Shutdown- Accomplish during descent if time permits.
Engine Restart- during flight
CAUTION
Do no attempt air restart above 12,000 feet MSL (TURB OUT TEMP rises too fast to control).
After an engine failure in flight, an engine start may be attempted. Because the exact cause of engine failure can not be determined in flight, the decision to attempt the start will depend on the altitude and time available, rate of descent, potential landing areas, and crew assistance available. 52-60 KIAS is recommended during the descent. Under ideal conditions, approximately one minute is required to regain powered flight from the time the attempted start is begun. If the decision is made to attempt an in-flight start:
Throttle- CLOSE
Fuel Valve Switch- ON
Attempt start
Land as soon as POSSIBLE
Engine Compressor stall
Engine compressor stall may be characterized by a sharp rumble or a series of loud sharp reports, severe engine vibration and a rapid rise in TURB OUT TEMP. Should engine compressor stall occur:
Collective- REDUCE
Engine Anti-ice and Heater switches- OFF
Land as soon as POSSIBLE
Low Inlet Pressure
LOW INLET PRESSURE caution light ON
1. ENGINE ALT AIR switch- OPEN
2. If caution light remains ON, land as soon as POSSIBLE
3. If caution light goes out, land as soon as PRACTICABLE. Related engine parameters should be monitored frequently until landing.
Engine Overspeed
Engine overspeed will be indicated by a right yaw, rapid increase in both rotor and engine RPM, and an increase in engine and rotor noise. If an engine overspeed is experienced:
1. Collective- Increase to load the rotor and sustain engine/rotor RPM below the maximum operating limit.
2. Throttle- Adjust until normal operating RPM is attained
3. Land as soon as POSSIBLE. Perform a power-on approach and landing by controlling the RPM manually with the throttle.
If RPM cannot be controlled by throttle adjustment:
4. Autorotate when over a safe landing area
5. Emergency shutdown- Accomplish during descent if time permits.
Low Engine Oil Pressure/High Engine Oil Temperature
If the engine oil pressure is below 50 PSI or the temperature is above 107*C - Land as soon as POSSIBLE.
NOTE
If engine oil pressure is falling or low and the oil temperature is rising or high, a severe leak may be present.
Engine Underspeed
If an engine underspeed occurs, the collective must be adjusted downward to maintain rotor within RPM limits. If powered flight with rotor in the green can be accomplished:
Land as soon as POSSIBLE in an area that will permit a run-on landing. An engine underspeed below 90% results in rotor RPM decay below minimum safe limits.
Should this occur:
1. Autorotate
2. Emergency shutdown- accomplish during the descent if time permits
Air Conditioning Malfunction
The type of malfunction that would create a potential emergency involves a failure of the compressor or drive belt that would cause a noticeable vibration or noise.
1. Air Conditioning and Fan switch- OFF
2. Land as soon as PRACTICABLE.
Engine Surges
If surges in engine RPM are experienced:
A. GOV INCR switch- INCR for maximum RPM.
B. Throttle- Adjust to 97% N2.
C. Land as soon as POSSIBLE.
If engine surges are not controlled in steps A and B above, proceed as follows:
A. Autorotate- when over a safe landing area.
B. Emergency shutdown- accomplish during descent if time permits.
Fuel Boost Pump Failure
WARNING
Operation with both fuel boost pumps inoperative is not authorized. Due to possible fuel sloshing in unusual attitudes and out of trim conditions and one or both fuel boost pumps inoperative, the unusable fuel is ten gallons.
With one or both fuel pumps inoperative:
NOTE
The engine will operate without boost pump pressure under 6,000 feet pressure altitude and one boost pump will supply sufficient fuel for normal engine operations under all conditions of power and altitude. Both fuel boost pumps shall be operating for all normal operations.
A. Descend to below 6,000 feet pressure altitude if possible.
B. Land as soon as PRACTICABLE.
Mast Bumping
Land as soon as possible
Fixed Pitch
high torque
This is a malfunction involving a loss of control resulting in a fixed pitch setting. Whether the nose of the helicopter yaws left or right is dependent upon the amount of pedal applied at the time of malfunction. Regardless of pedal setting at the time of malfunction, a varying amount of tail rotor thrust will be delivered at all times during flight.
Increased power (high torque): 1. Indications: The nose of the helicopter will turn left when power is reduced.
- Procedures:
(a) Maintain control with power and airspeed. (Between 40 and 70 knots.)
(b) Continue powered flight to a suitable landing area where a run-on landing can be accomplished.
(c) Execute a run-on landing with power and a touchdown speed which will minimize sideslip. Use throttle and collective, as necessary, to control sideslip and heading at touchdown.
Fixed Pitch
low torque
This is a malfunction involving a loss of control resulting in a fixed pitch setting. Whether the nose of the helicopter yaws left or right is dependent upon the amount of pedal applied at the time of malfunction. Regardless of pedal setting at the time of malfunction, a varying amount of tail rotor thrust will be delivered at all times during flight.
Reduced power (low torque): 1. Indications: The nose of the helicopter will turn right when power is applied.
- Procedure:
(a) If helicopter control can be maintained in powered flight, the best solution is to maintain control with power and accomplish a run-on landing as soon as practicable. Use airspeed, throttle, and collective to reduce the sideslip angle at touchdown.
(b) If helicopter control cannot be maintained, close the throttle immediately and accomplish an autorotational landing.
Fixed Pitch
Hover
Indication:
Helicopter heading cannot be controlled with pedals.
Procedure:
Fixed pedal- Land.
Loss of Tail Rotor Thrust
a. This situation involves a break in the drive system, such as a severed driveshaft, causing the tail rotor to lose power.
b. Indications:
1. Pedal input has no effect on helicopter trim.
WARNING
Degree of roll and side-slip may be varied by varying throttle and/or collective. (At airspeeds below approximately 50 knots, the side-slip may become uncontrollable, and the helicopter will begin to spin on the vertical axis.)
2. Nose of the helicopter turns to right (left sideslip).
3. Left roll of fuselage along the longitudinal axis.
c. Procedures:
1. If safe landing area is not immediately available, continue powered flight to suitable landing area at or above minimum rate of descent autorotational airspeed.
2. When landing area is reached, make an autorotational landing (THROTTLE CLOSED).
3. Use airspeed above minimum rate of descent airspeed.
NOTE
Airflow around the vertical fin may permit controlled flight at low power levels and sufficient airspeed when a suitable landing site is not available; however, the touchdown shall be accomplished with the throttle in the full closed position.
4. If run-on landing is possible, complete autorotation with touchdown airspeed as required for directional control.
5. If a run-on landing is not possible, start to decelerate from about 75 feet altitude, so that forward groundspeed is at a minimum when the helicopter reaches 10 to 20 feet; execute the touchdown with a rapid collective pull just prior to touchdown in a level attitude with minimum ground run.
6. Hover – Perform hovering autorotation.
Loss of Tail Rotor Components
a. The severity of this situation is dependent upon the amount of weight lost. Any loss of this nature will result in a forward center of gravity shift, requiring aft cyclic. A full autorotational descent and landing should be accomplished with a run-on type termination if to an improved surface, or minimum ground run if to an unimproved surface. Landing should be accomplished in a level attitude.
b. Indications:
1. Varying degrees of right yaw depending on power applied and airspeed at the time of failure.
2. Forward CG shift.
c. Procedures:
1. Enter autorotative descent (THROTTLE CLOSED).
2. Maintain airspeed above minimum rate of descent airspeed.
3. If run-on landing is possible, complete autorotation with touchdown airspeed as required for directional control.
4. If run-on landing is not possible, start to decelerate from about 75 feet altitude, so that forward groundspeed is at a minimum when the helicopter reaches 10 to 20 feet; execute the touchdown with a rapid collective pull just prior to touchdown in a level attitude with minimum ground run.
Loss of Tail Rotor Effectiveness Ch9
This is a situation involving a loss of effective tail rotor thrust without a break in the drive system which cannot be stopped with full left pedal application. If LTE is experienced, simultaneously:
1. Pedal- Full Left
2. Cyclic- Forward
3. As recovery is affected, adjust controls for normal flight.
WARNING
Collective reduction will aid in arresting the yaw rate; however, if a rate of descent has been established, collective reduction may increase the rate of descent to an excessive value. The resultant large and rapid increase in collective to prevent ground or obstacle contact may further increase the yaw rate, decrease the rotor RPM and cause an over torque and/or over temperature condition. Therefore, the decision to reduce collective must be based on the pilot assessment of the altitude available for recovery.
4. If spin cannot be stopped and crash is imminent, an autorotation may be the best course of action. Maintain full left pedal until the spin stops, then adjust to maintain heading.
Engine/Fuselage/Electrical Fire - ground
Emergency Shutdown
Engine Fuselage Fire- Flight
If a fire is observed during flight, prevailing circumstances such as VMC, IMC, night, altitude, and landing areas available must be considered in order to determine whether to execute a power-on or power-off landing.
A. If power-on landing:
1. Land as soon as POSSIBLE.
2. Emergency shutdown- accomplish AFTER LANDING.
B. If power-off landing:
1. Autorotate.
2. Emergency shutdown- accomplish DURING DESCENT if time permits.
Main Drive Shaft Failure
A failure of the main driveshaft will be indicated by a sudden increase in engine RPM, decrease in rotor RPM, a left yaw, activation of the low RPM audio, and illumination of the ROTOR RPM light. A transient overspeed of N1 and N2 may occur, but will stabilize. In the event of a main driveshaft failure:
WARNING
The engine must remain in operation to provide power to the tail rotor. Failure to maintain engine power will result in loss of aircraft control during autorotation. Adjust throttle as required to maintain engine RPM within normal limits.
1. Autorotate- Establish a Power On autorotation
2. Emergency Shutdown- Accomplish after landing.
Electrical Fire- Flight
Prior to shutting off all electrical power, the pilot must consider the equipment that is essential to a particular flight environment that will be encountered. In the event of electrical fire or suspected electrical fire in flight:
A. BATT and MAIN GEN switches- OFF
B. IFR: STDBY GEN switch- OFF
C. Land as soon as POSSIBLE.
D. Emergency shutdown- accomplish AFTER LANDING
Clutch Fails to Disengage
A clutch failing to disengage in flight will be indicated by the rotor RPM decaying with the engine RPM as the throttle is reduced to the engine idle position when entering an autorotational descent. This condition results in total loss of autorotational capability. If a failure occurs:
1. Throttle- OPEN
2. Land as soon as POSSIBLE
Hot Start
During starting or shutdown, if TOT limits are exceeded, or it becomes apparent the TOT limits may be exceeded, proceed as follows:
A. Starter button- Press and hold until TURB OUT TEMP is less than 200*C
B. Throttle- CLOSED
C. FUEL VALVE switch- OFF
D. Complete shutdown.
Smoke and Fume Inhalation
Ventilation of the cabin to protect occupants from the effects of toxic fumes, smoke, etc, shall be immediately performed as follows:
1. Vents- OPEN
2. COCKPIT AND CABIN WINDOWS- Open for maximum ventilation.
Hydraulic Power Failure
A. The first indication of hydraulic boost failure will be an increase in the force required for control movement; feedback forces will be noticed as well as rate limiting. Control motions will result in normal flight reactions in all respects, except for the increase in force required for control movement. In the event of hydraulic power failure, proceed as follows:
1. Airspeed- Adjust as necessary to attain the most comfortable level of control movements.
2. HYD BOOST circuit breaker- Out. Check for restoration of hydraulic power.
B. If hydraulic power is not restored:
1. HYD BOOST circuit breaker- In.
2. HYD SYSTEM switch- OFF.
3. Land as soon as practicable at an area that will permit a run-on landing.
WARNING
Do not return the HYD SYSTEM switch to the ON position for the reminder of the flight. This prevents any possibility of a surge in hydraulic pressure and the resulting loss of control.
Landing in Trees
A landing in trees should be made when no other landing area is available. In addition to accomplishing engine malfunction emergency procedures, select a landing area containing the least number of trees of minimum height. Autorotate with the throttle closed using the following procedures:
a. Airspeed ─ Minimum at treetop level.
b. Descend ─ Vertically into trees.
c. Collective ─ Apply remaining collective prior to blades entering trees.
Ditching Power On
If ditching becomes necessary, with power available accomplish an approach to a hover above the water and:
a. Doors ─ Open.
b. Crew (except pilot) and passengers ─ Exit.
c. Hover a safe distance away from personnel.
d. Autorotate. Apply all remaining collective as the helicopter enters the water. Maintain a level attitude as the helicopter enters the water. Maintain a level attitude as the helicopter sinks and until it begins to roll, then apply cyclic in direction of the roll.
e. Pilot ─ Exit when the main rotor stops.
Ditching Power Off
If an engine failure occurs over water and ditching is imminent, accomplish engine failure emergency procedures and proceed as follows:
a. AUTOROTATE. Decelerate to minimum forward speed as the helicopter nears the water. Apply all remaining collective as the helicopter enters the water. Maintain a level attitude as the helicopter sinks and until it begins to roll, then apply cyclic in the direction of the roll.
b. Doors ─ Open.
c. Crew and passengers ─ Exit when the main rotor stops.
Flight Control Malfunctions
Failure of components within the flight control system may be indicated through varying degrees of feedback, binding, resistance, or sloppiness. These conditions should not be mistaken for hydraulic power failure. In the event of a flight control malfunction.
A. Land as soon as POSSIBLE.
B. Emergency Shutdown- Accomplish after landing.
Uncommanded Flight Control Input Malfunctions
Uncommanded flight control input malfunctions may be indicated through uncommanded lateral or longitudinal cyclic movements. The magnitude of the event may range from mild to severe. The duration of the event may range from one to several seconds. These conditions should not be mistaken for hydraulic power failure. In the event of an uncommanded flight control input malfunction:
1. Collective- increase if near the ground to prevent main or tail rotor ground contact.
2. Pedal- apply in the direction of turn.
3. Direct assistance with flight control inputs to level the aircraft.
4. Land as soon as POSSIBLE.
Self-Imposed Stressors
Types of Stress:
- Psychosocial (life events, job, family)
- Environmental (altitude, temperature)
- Cognitive (mental)
- Physiological (self-imposed)
Drugs- illness and decreases in motor skills function, cognition, reaction time
Self medication Overdose Allergic reaction Predictable side effects Synergistic side effects Caffeine
Exhaustion-
Causes: poor diet/hydration, poor sleep patterns, inadequate exercise, environmental factors, and combat stress
Side effects: altered levels of concentration, awareness, and inattention, increased drowsiness, and staring rather than scanning at night
Prevention- physical exercise (but not too much or it’ll become worse) and adequate rest especially for night flights
Alcohol-
-impairs judgement and coordination, staring rather than scanning at night, effects are long lasting
1 oz at sea level = 2,000 feet
3 oz at 4,000 feet = 10,000 feet
-causes histotoxic hypoxia and may combine with hypoxic hypoxia if at altitude- can cause LOC or death if flight > 60 minutes
-12 hours after last drink to any flight activity but time may vary for individuals
- poor judgement, decision making, perception, reaction time, coordination, scanning techniques (staring)
Tobacco- visual sensitivity at night starting at 4,000 feet, causes hypemic hypoxia
- hemoglobin has 200-300x greater affinity for carbon monoxide rather than oxygen
- 3 cigarettes quickly or 20-40 cigarettes in 24 hours, CO increases by 8-10%
- sea level = 5,000 feet to the body
- lose about 20% of night vision capability
Hypoglycemia-
-hunger pangs, distraction, habit pattern breakdown, shortened attention span
caused by an improper diet (fast sugars will provide energy for 30-45 minutes and then increase in intensity of negative effects),
-Vitamin A deficiency can impair night vision
Fatigue
Fatigue is the state of feeling tired, weary, or sleepy that results from prolonged mental or physical work, extended periods of anxiety, exposure to harsh environments, or loss of sleep.
- increased by boring or monotonous tasks
- might not be aware of fatigue until they make serious errors
- causes: sleep deprivation, disrupted circadian cycles, or life-event stress
Types
- acute: physical or mental activity between two regular sleep periods; loss of coordination and lack of error awareness, can be resolved with one regular sleep period
- chronic: occurs over a longer period of time, typically the result of inadequate recovery from successive periods of acute fatigue; mental and physical tiredness; may take several weeks; look at family & finances
- motivational exhaustion (burnout): If chronic fatigue remains untreated for too long, the individual will eventually “shut down” and cease functioning occupationally and socially
Hypoxia
Hypoxia is defined as the state of oxygen deficiency in the blood cells and tissues enough to cause impairment of function.
Types of hypoxia:
1. Hypoxic- altitude > 10,000’; when decreasing atmospheric pressure prevents diffusion of oxygen into the bloodstream.
2. Hypemic- blood loss, anemia, smoking/carbon monoxide; reduction in the blood’s oxygen carrying capacity
3. Stagnant- heart attack, pooling from G forces; blood’s oxygen carrying capacity is adequate but circulation is not
4. Histotoxic- alcohol, cyanide; interference with the transfer of oxygen by body tissues
Stages of hypoxia:
- Indifference stage
Surface-10,000; 90-98%; night vision decreases at 4,000’
- Compensatory stage
10,000-15,000; 80-89%; effects on CNS, impaired efficiency is apparent after 10-15 minutes
- Disturbance stage
15,000-20,000; 70-79%; physiological responses can’t compensate for oxygen deficiency, LOC, loss of senses (vision first, hearings last), reduced mental processes, unusual personality traits, reduced psychomotor functions, cyanosis
- Critical stage
20,000+; 60-69%; 3-5 min = judgement and coordination lost, mental confusion, dizziness, incapacitation, and LOC
Treatment:
100% oxygen and descend to below 10,000’
Prevention: Prevention methods include limiting time at altitude, using supplemental O2, and pressurizing the cabin. Supplemental oxygen- >10,000’ for > 1 hour >12,000’ for >30 min >14,000’ for any amount of time
Spatial Disorientation
A pilots erroneous perception of position, attitude, or motion in relation to the gravitational vertical and the Earth’s surface.
Type 1- unrecognized (height-depth perception)
Type 2- recognized (the leans)
Type 3- incapacitating (Coriolis illusion)
Visual: 80% of orientation
Vestibular: somatogyral, somatogravic
Proprioceptive: feeling of position based on gravitational force
Visual illusions:
- Confusion with Ground Lights
- Crater Illusion
- Induced Motion
- False Horizons
- Fascination/Fixation
- Height-Depth Perception Illusion
- Autokinesis
- Structural Illusion
- Size-Distance Illusion
Somatogyral Illusions:
angular acceleration, semicircular canals, pitch/roll/yaw
- Leans: illusion of bank, slow roll, quick recovery, overcorrecting
- Graveyard Spiral: moderate to steep bank, canals reach equilibrium (while in bank) quickly roll out (feels like a bank in opposite direction), initiates bank in original direction- worst case is adding power and pitch up which tightens turn
- Coriolis Illusion: Head moves in a different geometric plane than the turn, gives a feeling of motion in opposite direction and tumbling
Somatogravic Illusions:
Linear acceleration/gravity, otolith organs
- G excess illusion
- Elevator illusion
Prevention:
- NEVER fly VFR in IMC - NEVER fly without visual reference - TRUST instruments - AVOID stressors
If experienced:
- Trust your instruments - Announce you have SD - Transfer controls
Transverse Flow Effect
In forward flight, air passing through the rear portion of the rotor disk has a greater downwash angle than air passing through the forward portion.
- unequal drag results in vibration
- occurs between 10 and 20 knots
- more lift in forward portion- gyroscopic precession = right rolling motion
Dissymmetry of Lift
Dissymmetry of lift is the differential (unequal) lift between advancing and retreating halves of the rotor disk caused by the different wind flow velocity across each half. This difference in lift would cause the helicopter to be uncontrollable in any situation other than hovering in a calm wind. There must be a means of compensating, correcting, or eliminating this unequal lift to attain symmetry of lift.
Compensating for dissymmetry of lift by blade flapping and cyclic feathering.
Effective Translational Lift
Effective translational lift (ETL) occurs with the helicopter at about 16 to 24 knots, when the rotor—depending on size, blade area, and RPM of the rotor system—completely outruns the recirculation of old vortexes and begins to work in relatively undisturbed air.
- flow of air is more horizontal
-> induced flow and induced drag are reduced
-> AOA is increased, which makes the rotor system operate more efficiently.
This increased efficiency continues with increased airspeed until the best climb airspeed is reached, when total drag is at its’ lowest point. Greater airspeeds result in lower efficiency due to increased parasite drag.
Settling with Power
Settling with power is a condition of powered flight in which the helicopter settles in its own downwash (may also be referred to as vortex ring state).
Under certain conditions the helicopter may descend at a high rate which exceeds the normal downward induced flow rate of the inner blade sections (inner section of the rotor disk).
conditions, simultaneously:
• A vertical or near-vertical descent of at least 300 feet per minute (FPM).
• Slow forward airspeed (less than ETL).
• 20 to 100% of the available engine power with insufficient power remaining to arrest the descent. Low rotor RPM could aggravate this.
The following flight conditions are conducive to settling with power:
• Steep approach at a high rate of descent.
• Downwind approach.
• Formation flight approach
• Hovering above the max hover ceiling.
• Not maintaining constant altitude control during an OGE hover.
• During masking/unmasking.
Dynamic Rollover
A helicopter is susceptible to a lateral-rolling tendency called dynamic rollover. Dynamic rollover can occur on level ground as well as during a slope or crosswind landing and takeoff. Three conditions are required for dynamic rollover—pivot point, rolling motion, and exceed critical angle.
Human Factors Failure to make timely corrections Loss of visual cues Inattention/Inexperience Inappropriate control inputs
Physical Factors Main rotor thrust Angle Surface Tail rotor thrust Crosswind Center of Gravity (vertical) Center of Gravity (lateral)
Airflow During a Hover
IGE/OGE
IGE
Rotor efficiency is increased by ground effect to a height of about one rotor diameter (measured from the ground to the rotor disk) for most helicopters. This increase in AOA requires a reduced blade pitch angle. This reduces the power required to hover IGE.
- relative wind is more horizontal, lift vector is more vertical, and induced drag is reduced (makes rotor system more efficient)
- maximum over smooth hard surfaces
- reduced over tall grass, trees, bushes, rough terrain, and water
OGE
The benefit of placing the helicopter near the ground is lost above IGE altitude. Above this altitude, the power required to hover remains nearly constant, given similar conditions (such as wind). Induced flow velocity is increased causing a decrease in AOA. A higher blade pitch angle is required to maintain the same AOA as in IGE hover. The increased pitch angle also creates more drag. More power to hover OGE than IGE is required by this increased pitch angle and drag.
Retreating Blade Stall
As the stall of an airplane wing limits the low speed of a fixed wing aircraft, the stall of a rotor blade limits the high speed of a rotary-wing aircraft. In forward flight, decreasing velocity of airflow on the retreating blade demands a higher AOA to generate the same lift as the advancing blade. Figure 1-79, page 1-66, illustrates the lift pattern at a normal hover with distribution/production of lift evenly spread throughout the rotor disk.
Conditions required
The following conditions are most likely to produce blade stall
• High blade loading (high gross weight).
• Low rotor RPM.
• High- density altitude.
Recovering The following steps enable the aviator to recover from retreating blade stall— • Reduce collective. • Reduce airspeed. • Descend to a lower altitude (if possible). • Increase rotor RPM to normal limits. • Reduce the severity of the maneuver. • High G-maneuvers. • Turbulent air.
*IFR Main Gen Failure
- Loadmeter reads 0
- All circuit breakers in.
2 main gen switch- reset, main gen
Still no output
- Check standby powering ess 1&2, battery on noness
- Noness manual mode if necessary
*IFR standby gen failure
Circuit breakers
