(P1) Topic 5: Health, Disease, And The Development Of Medicines Flashcards
What is a pathogen
A microorganism that enters your body and causes disease
What are the types of pathogen + examples
Bacteria- TB
Viruses- HIV
Fungi- athletes foot
Plasmodium- malaria
What are the four main categories of disease
Infections
Deficiency diseases
Inherited diseases
Body disorders
What are infections caused by + examples
Pathogens
E.g flu, AIDS
What are deficiency diseases caused by + examples
Lack of nutrients
E.g scurvy, anaemia
What are inherited diseases caused by + examples
A faulty gene
E.g cystic fibrosis, haemophilia
What are body disorders caused by + examples
Many causes (diet, random, etc)
E.g diabetes, cancer
What is cancer
When a group of cells is dividing uncontrollably
What is a group of cancerous cells called
A tumour
What is a benign tumour
It doesn’t spread to other tissues, usually not dangerous
What is a malignant tumour
A tumour that spreads to other organs/ tissues. Cancerous cells can break off and spread to other areas. Dangerous
Factors that have increased human survival
Technology, better treatment, greater awareness
What is a non-communicable disease
A disease that is not spread from one organism to another to another
What does atherosclerosis mean
Hardening of the arteries
What is atherosclerosis caused by
A build up of yellow fatty deposits called plaques
Where can plaques form
Anywhere, but particularly in the coronary and carotid arteries
What is the factor that sets of atherosclerosis
Damage to the endothelial lining of an artery
What does damage to the lining of the endothelial lining of an artery lead to
An inflammatory response in the body and white blood cells arrive at the site.
The cells gather chemicals from the blood, including cholesterol (which causes a fatty deposits known as atheroma to develop)
Fibrosis tissue builds up around the atheroma, making the plaque harden
This causes the artery wall to harden so that it is less elastic
What causes an aneurysm
Blood can build up behind a blockage causing the artery wall to bulge and weaken. This causes the chances of the wall splitting and internal bleeding occurring
What is an aneurysm
A budge in the wall of the artery
How serious are aneurysms
Very- they are often fatal
Where can high blood pressure cause damage
Kidneys, eyes, and the brain
What are strokes caused by
An interruption to the blood supply in the brain
What can cause SERIOUS strokes
Blockages in main blood vessels
What can cause LESS severe strokes
Blockages in smaller arterioles
What is an arteriole
Small blood vessels that carry oxygenated blood away from the heart
What are the symptoms of strokes
Dizziness, confusion, blurred or lost vision, slurred speech, numbness
What can severe strokes cause
Paralysis down one side of the body and death
What are the factors that increase risk of cardiovascular disease
Inheritance: some people are genetically predisposed to some disease
Diet: a diet high in saturated fat, salt, and alcohol increases the risk
Age: those most at risk are over the age of 40
Gender: men are more likely to suffer than women
High blood pressure
Smoking: chemicals in tobacco smoke can increase the risk
Physical inactivity: exercise can help decrease the risk
Why will people overestimate the risk of something happening
Beyond their control
Not natural
Unfamiliar
Dreaded
Unfair
Very small
Who was Iguaz Semmelweis
The person who discovered that people should wash their hands
Who was Louis Pasteur
The person that heating up food kills bacteria (pasteurisation)
Who was Joseph Lister
The person who discovered that surgeons needed to sterilise their equipment
What are 4 ways of spreading disease + examples
Droplet infection: coughs and sneezes e.g flu, TB, and the common cold
Direct contact: when the pathogen comes into direct contact with the skin e.g STIs
Food and drink: raw and undercooked food and water containing sewage e.g salmonella
Breaks in the skin: enter through a break in the skin r needle punctures e.g hepatitis, HIV, tetanus
Why did people not believe Semmelweis
He had very little evidence
What is a bacterium
A non-invasive pathogen that replicates and releases toxins that makes the person ill
Do bacteria physically go into our cells
No- they float around them
One way of combative a bacterial infection
Antibiotics
What is gonorrhoeal caused by
Bacteria
What are the symptoms of gonorrhoea
Thick green or yellow discharge from the vagina or penis, pain when urinating, bleeding between periods, pain or tenderness in lower abdominal area, swelling of foreskin
How does gonorrhoea spread
Unprotected sex, sharing unclean sex toys
What is the treatment for gonorrhoea
Antibiotic injection/ tablet
How to protect yourself from getting gonorrhoea
Protected sex
What are the symptoms of salmonella
Diarrhoea, stomach cramps, fever, nausea, vomiting, chills, headache, bloody stool
How does salmonella spread
Improper handling and cooking of food, undercooked pork/ poultry contaminated, unpasteurised dairy
What are the treatments for salmonella
Antibiotics, drinking lots of water
How to prevent the spread of salmonella
Asking hands, keeping food prep areas clean
What is a virus
A pathogen that invades the cells of a human, replicates, and releases toxins that makes the person ill
Why are viruses hard to kill
They live inside our cells
What is salmonella caused by
Bacteria
What is HIV caused by
A virus
What are the symptoms of HIV
Short flu-like illness, raised temperature, sore throat, body rash, tiredness, joint pain, muscle pain, swollen glands, weight loss, chronic diarrhoea
How does HIV spread
Sexual contact, breast milk, blood, lining inside the anus
What is the treatment for HIV
PEP for one month
How to prevent the spread of HIV
Protected sex
What is measles caused by
Virus
What are the symptoms of measles
High temperature, runny/ blocked nose, sneezing, cough, sore eyes, rash, death
How is measles spread
Touch, airborne
What is the treatment for measles
No specific treatment
How to prevent measles
Vaccination
What is tobacco mosaic virus caused by
Virus
What are the symptoms of tobacco mosaic virus
Discoloured leaves
How does tobacco mosaic virus spread
infected leaves rubbing against healthy plants, or contaminated tools or workers hands
How to treat tobacco mosaic virus
No treatment- once a plant is infected, it will remain infected for life
How to prevent tobacco mosaic virus
Avoid handling plants, remove diseased plants, control weeds, rotate crops, avoid planting near virus-infected plants, don’t permit tobacco near plants
Describe the steps of the Lytic Pathway
1) The virus attaches itself to a specific host cell
2) The genetic material from the virus is injected into the cell
3) The virus uses proteins and enzymes in the host to make lots of copies of itself
4) This eventually causes the cell to split open and release the new virus
Give an example of a virus that uses the Lysogenic pathway
HIV virus
The lytic pathway (simple ver)
1) attach
2) injects
3) copies
4) split and release
Describe the lysogenic pathway
1) The virus attaches itself to s specific host cell
2) The genetic material from the virus is incorporated into the DNA of the cell
3)The host cell divides normally and and it does so it replicated the genetic material of the virus. The virus remains dormant
4) Eventually a trigger (e.g a certain chemical) causes the viral genetic material to leave the genome and enter the lytic pathway
The lysogenic pathway simple version
1) attach
2) incorporates
3) dormant
4) trigger
How does HIV cause disease
It destroys the body’s immune system by infecting a CD4 cell
What is a CD4 cell
A white blood cell that identifies what it is that the phagocyte has ingested
What is a phagocyte
A type of immune cell that can surround and kill microorganisms, ingest foreign material, and remove dead cells
What are the body’s defences against microbes (eyes, nose, breathing organs, stomach)
Enzymes in tears kill bacteria of the surface of the eye
Hairs and mucus in the nose trap particles that could contain pathogens
The breathing organs have hairs and produce mucus to cover the lining of these organs and trap pathogens
The stomach contains both hydrochloric acid which kills bacteria and friendly bacteria that kill invading microbes
Are antibodies specific or generic
Specific- they will neutralise the microbe that they have been made for
(Like enzymes, lock and key)
What do white blood cells do
Neutralise or kill microbes that enter the body
What different things do white blood cells do
1) ingest the microbe
2) tag onto the antigens to help the phagocytes find them
3) stay in the blood to trigger a more rapid production of antibodies if the same pathogen returns
What do lymphocytes do
stay in the blood to trigger a more rapid production of antibodies if the same pathogen returns
What is phagocytosis
When a phagocyte ingests a microbe
What can antibodies do
Neutralisation and agglutination
What is neutralisation in terms of antibodies
Stopping pathogens reproducing
What is agglutination
Sticking the pathogens together
What are the steps of producing antibodies
1) The white blood cell “sees” the pathogen (microbe)
2) The cells produces antibodies to “fit” the antigen
3) The antibodies fit onto the antigens and cause the pathogens to clump
4) the pathogens are ingested by the white blood cells (phagocytosis)
Producing antibodies simple version
1) WBC sees
2) produced
3) clump
4) ingested (phagocytosis)
What is the response time of getting a higher concentration of white blood cells when it is the first time the body is encountering the disease
Slow
What is the response time of getting a higher concentration of white blood cells in the blood when it is NOT the first time the body is encountering the pathogen
Quicker
Why is the response time quicker the second time the body encounters a pathogen
Memory lymphocytes stay in the blood when it
What does MMR stand for
Measles, mumps, and rubella vaccine
What is rubella
German measels
What is herd immunity
Most people having vaccines protects those who can’t or don’t get the vaccine from getting the disease
That is the R value
For every person infected, the amount of people that that person will infect
What is the R value of measles
11
What is the R value of Ebola
18-19
Who was Edward Jenner
The man who invented vaccination
What are vaccinations mad from
Inactive or dead cells
Wha is the body stimulated to make when you get vaccinated
Antibodies
What does attenuated means
Modified to make the cells less likely to cause disease
What are some reasons that people are worried about vaccinations
Miscarriage, death, leads to communism, not studied enough, DNA gets wiped, allergic reactions, autism, dietary restrictions (e.g vaccination)
What are the reasons we need new medicines
More diseases discovered
To develop more effective medicines with less side effects
Patients may be allergic to available medicines so new ones are needed e.g allergic to penicillin
What is a placebo in drug testing
A fake drug to test against the real drug (doesn’t have any affect)
What is the control in a experiment
The part kept the same in the experiment, nothing done to it
What are the steps to developing a new vaccine
1) A disease is chosen and possible new medicines are made in a lab
2) The medicines are tested in the lab on cells, tissues, and organs
3) Medicines tested on animals
4) Tested on earthy human volunteers
5) Tested n human volunteers with the disease
6) The medicines are passes all the legal test and is licensed. It can now be administered by doctors
What are the factors that make a medicine good
Effective
Stable
Successfully into and removed from the body
Safe
What are monoclonal antibodies
A collection of a single type of antibody that is isolated and cloned
What are polyclonal antibodies
A collection of many different types of antibodies. They are made in our bodies
What is genetic engineering used to overcome
The problem of monoclonal antibodies manufactured from mouse cells triggering an immune response in a patient
What are the steps of obtaining monoclonal antibodies
1) Antigen injected into a mouse
2) The mouse naturally produces lymphocytes, which produce antibodies specific to the antigen
3) Spleen cells which produce the lymphocytes are removed during a small operation
4) The spleen cells are fused with human cancerous white blood cells called myeloma cella to form hybridoma cells which divide indefinitely
5) The hybridoma cells divide and produce millions of monoclonal antibodies specific to the original antigen
What are the steps for obtaining monoclonal antibodies (simple ver)
1) inject mouse
2) spleen cells formed and collected
3) spleen cells fuse with tumour cells
4) hybridoma cells
5) hybridoma cells grown in a lab
6) antibodies collected
What are monoclonal antibodies used for
Pregnancy testing kits
Diagnostic tools for AIDs
Industrial production of interferon
What is interferon
A chemical used to treat cancer and hepatitis
What does it mean to “humanise” hybridomes
Replacing much of the antibody with the corresponding human antibody structure
