OSSD Exam Review Flashcards
what is the difference between alpha and beta glucose
alpha has H on top for first carbon while beta has OH on top
is glycogen alpha or beta
alpha
is starch alpha or beta
alpha
is cellulose alpha or beta
beta
what are some properties of glucose
ringed
carbohydrate
can be oxidized
soluble
stable
which starch has 1,6 glycosidic bonds
amylopectin
describe nature of amylose + amylopectin
amylose
- linear
- coiled
- 1.4
amylopectin
- branched
- 1,6 + 1,4
- more compact (3D)
are starches soluble
no (large and polar carbohydrates)
does glycogen have 1,6 glycosidic bonds
yes
describe nature of glycogen
branched
coiled
1,4 and 1,6
stored in liver and muscles
describe nature of cellulose
b glucose
cell wall
straight chain
composed of microfibrils
glucose alternates in polymerization (1,4)
what holds microfibrils together
H bonds
is cellulose strong
yes
what are the functions of glycoproteins
act as markers
act as receptors
acts as ligands
structural support
how many antigens are there in blood groups
two
where are triglycerides synthesized
liver
are triglycerides solid at room temp
yes
what are some examples of triglycerides
blubber found in aquatic mammals
butter
lard
what is the distinguishing factor of sterols
4 fused carbon rings
describe the nature of waxes
waterproof
high melting point
solid at room temp
what is the equation for the formation of triglycerides
3 fatty acids + glycerol = triglyceride + 3 H2O
what is the equation for the formation of phospholipids
2 fatty acids + mod glycerol with phosphate = phospholipid + 2 H2O
what are some examples of condensation reactions
formation of
- phospholipids
- triglycerides
- polypeptide chains
- disaccharides
- most forms of polymerization
define nature of saturated fatty acids
straight
no double bonds
packed tightly
whats an example of saturated fatty acids
meats
define nature of unsaturated fatty acids
one or more double bonds
bends
no tight packing
liquid
example of polyunsaturated fatty acids
vegetable oil
example of monounsaturated fatty acids
olive oil
define cis and trans fatty acids
cis has H on same side in the kink
trans has H on opposite sides in the kink
define endotherms
organisms / animals that rely on metabolic reactions to generate heat
what is adipose tissue
tissue that stores energy and insulates your body
define amphipathic
a molecule with both hydrophobic and hydrophilic regions
define and identify the role of cholesterol
a steroid found in the phospholipid bilayer, typically on one layer and regulates fluidity and stability based on environmental changes (temp)
define proteins
complex macromolecules that consist of one or more chains of amino acids (polypeptides)
what are some functions of proteins
catalysis
signalling pathways
structural support
what is the term associated to the middle carbon in an amino acid
alpha carbon
what is the equation for the formation of a dipeptide
AA + AA = dipeptide + H2O
equation for N terminus
NH2
equation for C terminus
COOH
which terminal does additional amino acids get added to
C terminus
define essential amino acids
amino acids that are essential for bodily functions that your body cannot produce
define non-essential amino acids
amino acids that are essential for bodily functions that your body can produce
define the genetic code
set of rules of how DNA should translate
what is translation
mRNA to protein
what is transcription
DNA to mRNA
how is the genetic code degenerative
multiple codons code for same amino acid which can allow silent mutations (changes in DNA that does not change the amino acid sequence)
what are silent mutations
changes in DNA that does not change the amino acid sequence
what are two examples of single chain proteins
myoglobin (stored in muscles for oxygen storage)
lysozyme (breaks down microbial components in tears / saliva)
define denaturation
the alteration in a protein’s structure that causes it to degrade its function
what can cause denaturation
pH and temperature
how does pH affect protein structure
affects the solubility of the protein in specific
how does temperature affect protein structure
disrupts H bonds present holding the complex together
if an R group is negatively charged, is is acidic or basic
acidic
if an R group is positively charged, is it acidic or basic
basic
describe the nature of alpha helices
helix structures (secondary structure) that are local and occur between the O and H of amino acids 4 residues away in sequence
describe the nature of beta pleated sheets
flat sheets (secondary structure) that are local and occur between amino acid residues that are adjacent and run parallel
define primary strucure
sequence of AA in a chain
define secondary structure
local pleating and folding
define tertiary structure + types
R group interactions
- disulphide covalent bonds
- h bonds
- ionic bonds
- hydrophobic interactions
define integral proteins
proteins that contain hydrophobic and hydrophilic regions that are embedded inside the membrane
define peripheral proteins
proteins that contain hydrophilic regions that are peripheral of the membrane
define quaternary structure
the interactions between polypeptide chains and their arrangement in relation to one another
define the term conjugated in reference to proteins and non-conjugated
conjugated: contains non amino acid components
non-conjugated: only contains amino acid components
example of a conjugated protein
haemoglobin
what is the nature of globular proteins
spherical
soluble
amphipathic
what is the nature of fibrous protein
strong
insoluble
thin
example of a fibrous protein
collagen
example of a globular protein
haemoglobin
can lipid soluble materials pass the bilayer
yes
can small uncharged polar molecules pass the bilayer
mostly yes (mostly permable)
can large uncharged polar molecules pass the bilayer
mostly no (mostly impermeable)
can charged particles pass the bilayer
no
define osmosis
the movement of water from low to high solute concentration or high to low water potential across a selectively permeable membrane
define facilitated diffusion
diffusion that is aided by either carrier or channel proteins
what is an example of facilitated diffusion through a carrier protein
GLUT transporter (glucose into RBC)
what is an example of facilitated diffusion through a channel protein
sodium and potassium channels (not pump)
define active transport
movement of molecules from low to high concentration (against gradient) that is aided by a protein that uses energy
describe the working of the Na/K pump ATPase
- open to interior of cell and 3 Na bind (ATP binds)
- ATP hydrolyzes and pump changes to open outside
- Na discard and 2 K bind to pump
- Phosphate detaches and conformational change to open to the interior of the cell and K discards
does indirect active transport require ATP, why?
does not, the other substance that is going by its gradient drives the secondary substance
what are the functions of glycoproteins / glycolipids
cell recognition
cell adhesion
cell signalling
what direction do substances flow according to the fluid mosaic model
laterally
define endocytosis
bulk transport of materials into the cell
what is an example of endocytosis
phagocytosis –> solid particles (ex: WBC pseudopodia with pathogens)
pinocytosis –> small “drinking” ingestions of extracellular fluid to regulate internal pressure
define exocytosis
bulk transport of materials outside of the cell
what is an example of exocytosis
glycolipids produced in ER, modified in golgi, get sent out of the cell (membrane)
what is the typical resting membrane potential of a nerve cell
-70mV
define electrochemical gradient
the difference in electrochemical charge across a membrane
does the exterior or interior have a higher concentration of sodium
exterior
does the exterior or interior have a higher concentration of potassium
interior
define action potential
rapid sequence of changes in the voltage across a membrane
describe the change in action potential in a neuron
- stimuli causes opening of Na gate
- sodium diffuses into neuron (depolarization)
- action potential travels down the neuron
- sodium channel closes and potassium channel opens after a certain voltage is reached
- potassium diffuses out of the neuron (repolarization)
- potassium channel closes, ATPase regulates the membrane potential back to rest (-70mV)
where is nAchR found
neuromuscular junctions
what does nAchR do
a neurotransmitter gated ion channel for sodium
it diffuses in when Ach binds to it
cholinesterase then breaks down Ach instantly
what is an example of indirect active transport
cotransport of sodium + glucose to epithelial cells
involved in the nephron
what are the 3 junction types
adhesion
tight (seal)
gap (movement of molecules)
what defines an organelle
specific function or membrane bound
what is an example of compartmentalization
lysosomes (prevents enzymatic activity and damage to other areas of the cell were this process is unneeded)
what is post transcriptional modification and why is compartmentalization important
removal of fragments of mRNA and is important to prevent translation into a protein in cytoplasm
what are stacked thylakoids called
grana / granum
what connects thylakoids
lamellae
what side are ribosomes bound to in rough ER
cytosolic side (facing cytoplasm)
what are cis, medial and trans golgi specification
receives from ER, receives for internal use, receives for external use
what is clathrin + its use
formation of vesicles, its polymerization acts as a skeleton for this formation. its role is not fully understood at this time
how many cells are found in the morula
16-32
what are the parts of a blastocyst
trophoblast (outside) + inner cell mass
define differentiation
the process where a cell becomes specialized for specific functions
what are morphogens
form giving molecules / chemicals that influence the differentiation that occurs in stem cells
what are totipotent stem cells
can give rise to an organism
what are pluripotent stem cells
differentiate into any body cell
what are multipotent stem cells
differentiate into closely related cells
what are unipotent stem cells
can only divide into that type of cell
what are some examples of flattening to increase SA:V
golgi and cristae
what are type 1 pneumocytes
substances that are thin and flat that cover the alveoli and allow for gas exchange to occcur
what are type 2 pneumocytes
cuboidal in shape, small protrusions that enter alveolar space to secrete surfactant
why do skeletal muscles have multiple nuclei
to produce proteins for O2 storage and use
what are some adaptations for egg cell
larger
round
many nutrients
permeable membrane
what are some adaptations for sperm cell
small
motile (flagella)
mitochondria present
enzymes in acrosome cap for penetration
what are some factors of efficient gas exchange
large SA
permeability (thin)
concentration gradient
moist layer
what are some adaptations for mammals in gas exchange
dense network of blood vessels
double circulatory system
continuous blood flow
ventilation
what is the role of surfactant
reduce surface tension to allow partial collapsing of alveoli
what are some adaptations for alveoli in specific that aid in gas exchange
dense bed of capillaries
moist layer
thin layer
concentration gradient
many of them (increase SA)
explain the role of the intercostal muscles in inhalation, exhalation and forced exhalation
inhalation
- external contract
- internal relax
exhalation
- both relax
forced exhalation
- external relax
- internal contract
what are some factors that affect lung capacities
age, body composition, lung volume, genetics, sex, diseases, amount of physical activity
what do baroreceptors do
detect changes in pressure
what do baroreceptors do when pressure decreases
detects, sends info to medulla, increase in heart rate (vasoconstriction)
what do baroreceptors do when pressure increases
detects, sends to medulla, reduce in heart rate (vasodilation)
what do chemoreceptors do
detect changes in CO2, O2 and pH
what do chemoreceptors do if pH decreases
means there is more CO2 and therefore must increase ventilation
why does CO2 make blood more acidic (less pH)
it forms carbonic acid in aqueous solution
does fetal or adult haemoglobin have a higher affinity and why
fetal, presence of gamma chains are stronger than beta chains. harder to discard oxygen in tissues / cells
HbA vs HbF vs myoglobin, which has highest O2 affinity
myoglobin
what happens to haemoglobin when oxygen binds to it
induces cooperative binding, allows multiple oxygen to bind to the complex with more ease, increasing its affinity for oxygen. reason for the S shape of the dissociation curve
what happens if carbon dioxide is in high concentrations in the blood?
higher CO2 pressure results in oxygen dissociation curve to shift right, decrease in pH alters solubility and structure, thus decreasing affinity for every level of pressure for oxygen
what is a bohr shift?
a shift in the oxygen dissociation curve
describe cytokinesis in plant cells vs animal cells
plant cells
- a cell plate forms due to various vesicles containing cellulose components and other necessary resources to split the cell into two
animal cells
- actin and myosin proteins form a contractile ring between the two nuclei and induce pinching off to form two separate cells
explain why unequal cytokinesis is essential
for increased allocation of resources towards germ cells such as egg cells and allows for life to be sustainable
what makes asexual reproduction so diverse
crossing over + independent assortment with two sets of DNA
what is the term for the failure to assort properly in anaphase
non-disjunction
what is the term for down syndrome
trisomy 21
equation for possible combinations in independent assortment
2^n (n = haploid number)
what are the stages to the cell cycle
G1, S, G2, mitosis
what are cyclins
proteins that regulate the cell cycle (bind to CDKs to allow for cycle to continue)
how can mutations occur
errors in genetic code
ionizing radiation
mutagenic chemicals
what are oncogenes and what do they do
mutated proto-oncogenes and have uncontrolled cellular division
how do you calculate mitotic index
number of dividing cells / total cells
describe the stages of spermatogenesis
- spermatogonia divide mitotically into primary spermatocytes
- primary spermatocytes divide via meiosis into secondary spermatocytes
- secondary spermatocytes divide via meiosis II into spermatids
- spermatids undergo spermiogenesis and form sperms
describe the stages of oogenesis
- oogonia divide mitotically into primary oocytes
- primary oocytes divide via meiosis I but are capped at prophase I until the onset of puberty
- when puberty occurs, meiosis I completes to form secondary oocytes + first polar body and meiosis II starts but is capped at metaphase II
- upon fertilization, meiosis II completes and forms a mature egg / ovum + second polar body
what is the female part of the plant and its parts
pistil (ovary, style, stigma)
what is the male part of the plant and its parts
stamen (anther, filament)
what is the term for when gened differ by a few bases
alleles
define true breeding
crossing an organism that always passes on its phenotypic trait
what is PKU
a recessive disorder caused by a mutation in chromosome 12
this gene on chromosome 12 codes for an enzyme that converts Phe to Tyr
if not produced, Phe levels build and become toxic
what is codominance
when both alleles are expressed equally
what is incomplete dominance
when both alleles are mixed and expressed
what are some sex linked disorders
colour blindness
haemophilia
what is haemophilia
the disorder in which the F8 gene that encodes for clotting factor VIII is not created, resulting in the lack of blood clotting. can lead to excessive bleeding and major loss of blood
where does blood enter the kidney
renal artery
what are the functions of the kidney
ultrafiltration
reabsorption
secretion
outline the roles in ultrafiltration
afferent arterioles bring blood to nephron
filtration occurs in bowman’s capsule in glomerulus
blood leaves via efferent arterioles
outline the roles in reabsorption
filtrate passes through proximal convoluted tubule
transport to loop of henle (ascending has no aquaporins)
flows through distal convoluted tubule
collecting duct finally absorbs anything (osmoreceptors can regulate amount of aquaporins in collecting duct)
what are the two cycles in the menstrual cycle
ovarian cycle
uterine cycle
outline the processes in the ovarian cycle
- follicular phase –> LH and FSH secreted, causes oestradiol secretion. follicles enlargen
- ovulation –> LH and FSH causes follicles to become large and eventually rupture, releasing mature egg
- luteal phase –> FSH + LH drop, oestradiol + progesterone increase, inhibiting FSH and LH
outline the processes in the uterine cycle
- proliferative –> oestradiol secretion as follicle grows
- secretory –> progesterone influences uterine lining to thicken
- menstruation –> low FSH and LH, decrease in progesterone + oestradiol
IVF reproduction processes
individual is given FSH in abundance to produce more than 1 egg per month
given hCG to speed up maturation of the egg and follicle production
define locomotion
ability for an organism to move its entire body from one place to another
define sessile
immobile organisms / fixed in one place and rely on the environment for resources
what is a cross bridge
structure when myosin head binds to actin
outline the relationship between the bands in contraction for muscles
I and H bands decrease, A band increases
outline the process of contraction in muscle fibres
electrical stimuli causes release of calcium
binds to troponin and undergoes conformational change
pushes tropomyosin away (ATP required)
myosin head then binds to actin site
ATP hydrolyzes and pulls myosin head back to original
ATP attaching causes myosin head to detach
what is the role of titin in muscle relaxation
stretches when sarcomere does and stores potential energy
outline the process between motor neuron and muscle fibre
axon terminal of motor neuron releases neurotransmitter (acetylcholine)
diffuses across synaptic cleft in neuromuscular junction
binds to receptors on muscle cell and triggers opening of calcium channel
what are synovial joints + example
joints separated by synovial fluid and have cartilage on the bones. ex: hip joint
what direction do external + internal intercostal muscles run
external –> downwards
internal –> upwards
what are some reasons for locomotion
foraging
running from predators
migration
reproduction
what are some marine mammal adaptations
streamlined bodies
flippers and tails
higher amount of myoglobin
more blood
large SA:V
what is the role of synergids
guide the pollen tubes towards the egg cell
what is the role of the central cell in the ovule of a plant
to fuse with secondary sperm (double fertilization) to form endosperm for nutrition to nourish the embryo
what are hermaphrodites
organisms with male and female reproductive parts
outline role of pollination
pollen lands on stigma
germination
pollen tube forms
generative cells split into sperm cell
entry and fertilization
outline stages of male hormone production in puberty
puberty initiated by GnRH
releases LH + FSH
LH makes testosterone
FSH makes sperm
outline stages of female hormone production in puberty
puberty initiated by GnRH
releases LH + FSH
makes progesterone (inhibits LH + FSH)
makes oestradiol (inhibits GnRH)
what is the primary defence system
skin / mucous membranes
what is the second defence system
immune response
what are the steps of phagocytosis
recognition
pseudopodia
maturation
lysosome fusing
enzymes digesting
what do plasma b cells produce
antibodies (y shaped)
what are the two types of t-cell
cytotoxic (kills infected cells)
helper (activates cytotoxic and b cells)
how do t cells get activated
antigen presenting cells demonstrate fragments that then activate t cells and cytotoxic t cells along with b cells
how do b cells get activated
recognition of antigen present on membrane allows activation, can be through helper t cell sending a signal to b cell to activate and release antibodies
what are the stages of HIV
acute: high conc, high transmission, high multiplication
chronic: low conc, low transmission, low multiplication, last several years
final stage: cannot fight off opportunistic infections
why do antibiotics not affect humans / eukaryotic cells
antibiotics either alter the reproduction of bacteria or instantly kill them and this can be done through the interference in the polymerization of peptidoglycan in bacteria cell walls, that is not found in human / eukaryotic cells. prevents cross linking, lysis occurs
how does antibiotic resistance occur
either through slight mutations in the bacteria, becoming resistant through adaptations or for prolonged exposure to the antibiotic, in which certain protein pumps can discard the antibiotic or enzymes can break down the components in the antibiotic
what is the term for bacteria that is resistant to multiple antibiotics
MDR bacteria
what is the term given to pathogen when they break the species barrier
a crossover with zoonotic pathogens
what are vaccines
substances that provide immunity to a specific disease
what is immunization
when bodies develop an immunity to a specific pathogen / disease
what are the types of vaccines
live attenuated
DNA
RNA
what is herd immunity
immunity that occurs in a community when a certain percentage of individuals are immune to a specific pathogen / disease. this is beneficial to individuals who cannot get vaccinated for reasons associated with their immune system
which cells myelinate neurons in PNS
Schwann cells
which cells myelinate neurons in CNS
oligodendrocytes
what are the types of neurons
sensory
interneuron
motor
how does temperature affect conductivity velocity in neurons
hotter = faster lol
what is a neuromuscular junction
junction / synapse between a motor neuron and muscle fibre as the effector cell
what is a neuroglandular junction
junction / synapse between neurons and glands
what is saltatory conduction
the conduction that occurs when an action potential travels between nodes of Ranvier in myelinated neurons (higher speed)
what are exogenous chemicals
chemicals that originate outside of the body
explain how nicotine can induce paralysis
it can bind to AchR and prevent the binding of Ach to R, thus preventing the transmission of Ach rather abruptly
explain how cocaine can be addictive
uses dopamine as a reward pathway, and binds to dopamine reuptake receptors to build up the amount of dopamine and release in amplified waves to give a feeling of sensation. multiple receptors can be placed if needed with more cocaine concentration
what does helicase do
unzips the double helix structure of DNA into two strands by breaking the H bonds present
what does DNA polymerase III do
binds to the independent strands of DNA and attaches free fragments / nucleotides to the strand to create the double helix upon replication (5’ to 3’)
what does DNA polymerase I do
discards the RNA primers that DNA primase has placed
what does DNA primase do
adds RNA primers to indicate starting points for replication for polymerase III
