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Organisation Flashcards

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AP® Biology flashcards Biology 101 flashcards
1
Q

Define enzyme

A

a biological catalyst that controls the rate of reactions in our body

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2
Q

Define catalyst

A

a substance which increases the speed of a reaction without being used up

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3
Q

Why can enzymes only catalyse one specific reaction?

A

because their active site has a unique shape that matches with a substrate - ‘lock and key’

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4
Q

What two factors can cause an enzyme to denature?

A
  • temperatures that are too high
  • a pH that is either too high or low
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5
Q

What happens when an enzyme denatures?

A

the shape of the active site changes

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6
Q
  • Name 3 digestive enzymes
  • What molecules they break down
  • what the molecules convert into
A
  • Protease : Proteins -> Amino acids
  • Lipase : Lipids -> glycerol + fatty acids
  • Amylase : starch -> maltose
  • (Carbohydrase : Carbohydrates -> simple sugars)
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7
Q

Why is it important that food molecules are broken down during digestion?

A

So they are soluble and can be absorbed into the blood stream

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8
Q

Where is amylase made?

A
  • Pancreas
  • Small intestine
  • Salivary glands
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9
Q

Where are proteases made?

A
  • Pancreas
  • Small intestine
  • Stomach (where it’s called pepsin)
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10
Q

Where are lipases made?

A
  • Pancreas
  • Small intestine
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11
Q

Where is bile produced, stored and released?

A
  • Produced - liver
  • Stored - gall bladder
  • Released - small intestine
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12
Q

Why does bile neutralise acids?

A

Because it’s an alkaline. The enzymes work best in these alkaline conditions.

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13
Q

Why does bile emulsify fats?

A

Because the fats break into tiny droplets they have a bigger surface area for enzymes to work on - making digestion faster.

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14
Q

Why does the stomach produce hydrochloric acid?

A

to kill bacteria,
to give the right pH for protease to work

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15
Q

How do you prepare a food sample?

A
  1. Break it up using a pestle and mortar
  2. Transfer to beaker, add some distilled water
  3. Stir with glass rod to dissolve some of the food
  4. Filter the solution using a funnel lined with filter paper to remove solid bits of food
  5. …
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16
Q

Which solution do you use for each food test?

A

Sugars - benedict’s solution
Starch - iodine solution
Proteins - biuret solution
Lipids - ethanol

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17
Q

What colour’s shown when sugar is present?

A

from blue to green, yellow, brick-red

in ascending order of how much is present ->

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18
Q

What colour’s shown when starch is present?

A

from browny-orange to blue-black

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19
Q

What colour’s shown when protein is present?

A

from blue to purple

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20
Q

What colour’s shown when lipids are present?

A

cloudy-white

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21
Q

What food test requires a water bath at 75C ?

A

test for sugars

using benedict’s solution

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22
Q

What food test should not be filtered when preparing a food sample?

A

test for lipids

because it sticks to the filter paper

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23
Q

What should you do after adding a solution to your food samples?

A

gently shake the test tube

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24
Q

How does air travel through when breathing in?

A

trachea -> bronchi -> bronchioles -> alveoli

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25
Q

What is breathing rate?

A

Number of breaths per minute

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26
Q

Where and what does the right ventricle pump?

A
  • It pumps deoxygenated blood
  • to the lungs and then into the heart
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27
Q

Where and what does the left ventricle pump?

A
  • It pumps oxygenated blood
  • to the other organs
  • as it becomes deoxygenated the blood returns to the right ventricle
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28
Q

Name the four chambers of the heart

A
  • left ventricle
  • right ventricle
  • left atrium
  • right atrium
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29
Q

Where is each blood vessel of the heart located?

A
  • vena cava - top left
  • pulmonary artery - top centre left
  • aorta - top centre right
  • pulmonary vein - top right

this is when looking at a diagram - in your heart it’s the other way rou

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30
Q

What is the function of the coronary arteries?

A

to provide oxygen for the muscle cells of the heart

31
Q

What does the pacemaker do?
Where is it located?

A

controls your resting heart rate by sending an electrical impulse causing surrounding muscle cells to contract
in the right atrium

32
Q

What can you use if your pacemaker cells don’t work properly?

A

Use an artificial pacemaker
which connects to the heart with a wire and sends electrical impulses

33
Q

How are veins adapted to carry blood back to the heart?

A
  • thin walls since it already has a low pressure
  • valves to stop back flow
34
Q

How are arteries adapted to carry blood from the heart?

A
  • thick muscular walls to withstand the high pressure
  • elastic fibres to stretch and recoil for every surge of blood
35
Q

How are capillaries adapted for diffusing substances?

A
  • thin walls (only one cell thick)
  • permeable walls - so substances can diffuse in and out
  • carry blood close to every cell in the body
36
Q

How are red blood cells adapted for absorbing oxygen?

A
  • they are a biconcave disc giving it a large surface area
  • no nucleus which allows more space for oxygen
  • contain haemoglobin which binds to oxygen
37
Q

What is the word equation that involves haemoglobin and oxygen?

A

haemoglobin + oxygen –> oxyhaemoglobin

this happens in the lungs
it is the opposite when depositing oxygen

38
Q

What three ways can white blood cells fight against a microorganism?

A
  • phagocytosis
  • producing antibodies
  • producing antitoxins
39
Q

What do white blood cells have that red blood cells don’t?

A

a nucleus

40
Q

What do platelets do?

A

they help the blood to clot

this stops excessive bleeding

41
Q

What does plasma do?

A

Transports:
* red + white blood cells and platelets
* CO2 from organs to lungs
* Urea from liver to kidney
* Nutrients e.g. glucose and amino acids

42
Q

What is coronary heart disease?

A

When the coronary arteries get blocked by layers of fatty material building up which restricts blood flow causing lack of oxygen in heart muscles

this can lead to heart attacks

43
Q

What are two ways you can treat coronary heart disease?

A
  • using stents
  • taking statins
44
Q

What are the positives of stents?

A
  • they lower the risk of heart attack
  • effective for a long time
  • recovery time is relatively quick
45
Q

What are the negatives of stents?

A
  • risk of heart attack during operation
  • risk of infection from surgery
  • risk of developing thrombosis (developing a blood clot near the stent)
46
Q

What do statins do?

A

reduce the amount of ‘bad’/LDL cholesteral in the bloodstream

this slows down the rate of fatty deposits forming

47
Q

What are the positives of using statins?

A
  • can increase ‘good’ / HDL cholesteral which can remove LDL cholesteral
  • they have been proven to reduce the risk of coronary heart disease
48
Q

What are the negatives of using statins?

A
  • can sometimes have negative side effects e.g. headache, kidney failure, liver damage
  • it’s a long-term drug that must be taken regularly. Risk that someone forgets
49
Q

What can a heart valve be weakened by?

A
  • heart attacks
  • old age
  • infection
50
Q

How can weak heart valves lead to poor blood circulation?

A

Valve tissue may stiffen and not open properly
A valve can become leaky and allow blood flow in both directions

this means blood doesn’t circulate as effectively as normal

51
Q

How can faulty heart valves be treated?

A

Replacing the valve with:
* biological (human or mammal) valves
* mechanical (man-made) valves

52
Q

What are the negatives for a mechanical valve?

A
  • issues with blood clots
  • patients need to take anti-clotting drugs
53
Q

What are the negatives for a biological valve?

A
  • they don’t last long

but patients don’t need to take drugs

54
Q

What are the positives of artificial hearts?

A
  • they aren’t rejected by the patients body because they’re made of plastic and metal
  • they can be used when a donor isn’t available
55
Q

What are the negatives of artificial hearts?

A
  • surgery can lead to bleeding and infection
  • they don‘t work as well as natural ones
  • motor could fail or parts of the heart could wear out
  • blood doesn’t flow through artificial hearts as smoothly which can cause blood clots or strokes
    therefore, patients have to take anti blood clotting drugs which can cause problems with bleeding if they’re hurt
56
Q

What is the point of artificial blood?

A

to act as a blood substitute to replace the lost volume of blood which can give the patient enough time to produce new blood cells

it can keep a person alive even if they lose 2/3 of their red blood cell

57
Q

What are the 2 types of tumours?

A
  • Benign
  • Malignant
58
Q

What is a benign tumour?

A

A tumour which doesn’t invade other tissues of the body.
It stays in one place (usually inside a membrane).

It isn’t cancerous

59
Q

What is a malignant tumour?

A

A tumour that spreads to neighbouring healthy tissues.
Cells can spread via the bloodstream and cause secondary tumours.

They are cancers and can be fatal

60
Q

What are 4 risk factors that increase the risk of cancer?

A
  • Smoking
  • Obesity
  • UV exposure
  • Viral infection e.g. hepatitis B/C increase risk of liver cancer
61
Q

What are tumours the result of?

A

uncontrolled cell growth and division

62
Q

Where is the epidermal tissue of a leaf found?

A

on the top (upper epidermis)
on the bottom (lower epidermis)

63
Q

What are the features of the upper epidermis?

A

It’s covered by a waxy cuticle to reduce evaporation of water
It’s transparent so that light can pass through

64
Q

What layer is under the upper epidermis?

A

palisade mesophyll

where photosynthesis happens

65
Q

Why is the palisade mesophyll good for photosynthesis?

A

It contains palisade cells which have lots of chloroplasts

chloroplasts have chlorophyll which absorb light for photosynthesis

66
Q

What layer is under the palisade mesophyll?

A

spongy mesophyll

for gases to diffuse

67
Q

Why are there air gaps in the spongy mesophyll?

A

to allow CO2 to diffuse into the palisade cells
to allow oxygen to diffuse out of palisade cells and go through the stomata

68
Q

Where are stomata and guard cells found?

A

in the lower epidermis

69
Q

Define translocation

A

the movement of sugars, from photosynthesis, through the phloem to the rest of the plant

70
Q

Define transpiration

A

the evaporation of water from a leaf’s surface

71
Q

What conditions increase the rate of transpiration?

A
  • high temperature
  • dry conditions (not humid)
  • windy conditions
  • high light intensity
72
Q

Do guard cells open or close during the night?

A

They close because photosynthesis can’t occur with no light

they open to let CO2 enter

73
Q

Describe the structure of xylem

A
  • Made up of dead cells joined end to end
  • There are no walls between them creating a tube
  • It is strengthened by lignin

biology (4 decks)

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