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Organisation Flashcards

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AP® Biology flashcards Biology 101 flashcards
1
Q

What are cells?

A

The basic building blocks of all living organisms.

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2
Q

What is a tissue?

A

A group of cells with a similar structure and function.

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3
Q

What are organs?

A

Collections of tissues performing specific functions.

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4
Q

What are organ systems?

A

Several organs working together to perform a similar function.

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5
Q
A
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6
Q

Where is bile made, stored and released?

A

Made in the liver, stored in the gall bladder and released into the small intestine.

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7
Q

What are the two functions of bile?

A

Neutralising acid from the stomach going into the small intestine and emulsifying fat into small droplets to increase the surface area.

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8
Q

Explain how bile’s two functions increase the rate of fat digestion.

A

A larger surface area allows lipase enzymes to reach more lipid molecules. This enzyme has an alkaline optimum pH so has a higher activity in alkaline conditions.

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9
Q

Where is amylase produced and where does it work?

A

Produced: salivary glands, pancreas and wall of small intestine
Works: mouth, small intestine (duodenum and ileum)

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10
Q

Where is protease produced and where does it work?

A

Produced: wall of stomach, pancreas, wall of small intestine
Works: stomach, small intestine (duodenum and ileum)

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11
Q

Where is lipase produced and where does it work?

A

Produced: pancreas
Works: small intestine (duodenum)

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12
Q

What are the word equations for the breaking down of carbohydrates, protein and lipids.

A

Carbohydrate —> simple sugars
Protein —> amino acids
Lipids —> glycerol and fatty acids

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13
Q

Required practical 3: Use qualitative reagents to test for carbohydrates, lipids and proteins

A
  • Sugar: Mix the food with some Benedict’s solution. Heat it. Blue - brick red precipitate
  • Starch: Add a few drops of iodine solution to the food. Orange-brown - blue-black solution
  • Protein: Mix the food with some Biuret reagent. Blue - purple
  • Lipid: Shake the food with ethanol and pour it into water. Clear solution - emulsion forms as a cloudy white layer.
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14
Q

Required practical 4: The effect of pH on the rate of reaction of enzymes

A
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15
Q

What is the role of the coronary arteries?

A

To supply the cells of the heart with oxygen.

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16
Q

What are the benefits of a double circulatory system?

A

Passing through twice allows a higher pressure to be maintained, increasing blood flow to the tissues. Oxygenated and deoxygenated blood do not mix.

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17
Q

What is the purpose of valves?

A

To prevent the back flow of blood.

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18
Q

What is heart rate?

A

The frequency with which the heart contracts.

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19
Q

What is the natural resting heart rate controlled by?

A

A group of cells found in the right atrium which act as a pacemaker, producing regular impulses that travel through the heart causing it to contract.

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20
Q

Describe the structure and function of arteries.

A

Function: Carry blood at high pressure away from the heart
Lumen: Narrow to maintain pressure
Wall: Elastic fibres stretch and recoil to maintain pressure. Thick walls resist bursting.
Valve: No, high pressure blood keeps moving

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21
Q

Describe the structure and function of capillaries.

A

Function: Exchange of substances with cells
Lumen: Very narrow and keeps red blood cells close to tissue cells
Wall: Very thin - short distance to maximise exchange by diffusion
Valves: No

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22
Q

Describe the structure and function of veins.

A

Function: Return blood at a low pressure to the heart
Lumen: Large so there is less resistance to blood flow
Wall: Low pressure do no need for a thick elastic wall
Valve: Yes - prevents the back flow of blood

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23
Q

What is the equation for cardiac output?

A

Cardiac output (dm3 per minute) = stroke volume (dm3) x heart rate (beats per minute)

24
Q

How does blood keep flowing in veins despite the low blood pressure in these vessels?

A

Skeletal muscles press on the veins during activity and squeeze blood along. Valves prevent the back flow of blood. The lumen is large so there is little resistance to flow.

25
Q

Describe the structure of the lungs.

A

The trachea leads from the throat to the lungs. Here it splits into to bronchi. The bronchi divide further and eventually end in small air sacs called alveoli.

26
Q

How are the lungs adapted for gas exchange?

A

A large surface area for exchange is provided by the many alveoli with folded surfaces. There is a short diffusion pathway because the alveolar wall and capillary wall are only one cell thick. The concentration gradient for diffusion is maintained from having a good blood supply from many capillaries. This maximises differences in concentrations of carbon dioxide and oxygen between alveoli and blood so that diffusion is maximised.

27
Q

Why do the trachea and bronchi have rings of stiff tissue called cartilage?

A

To keep the airways open and allow unobstructed air movement.

28
Q

Why is it important to remove carbon dioxide?

A

Carbon dioxide from cellular respiration is toxic.

29
Q

Describe the path taken by an oxygen air molecule as it moves from the air in the alveolus into the blood.

A

It diffusés through the single cell layer of the alveolus wall through the single-celled layer of the capillary through the blood plasma then into a red blood cell.

30
Q

Describe gas exchange in the alveoli.

A

The alveoli are surrounded by a network of capillaries. Capillaries bring blood to them with a high concentration of carbon dioxide and a low concentration of oxygen. Oxygen moves by diffusion from the air in the alveolus into the blood. Carbon dioxide diffuses in the opposite direction. Blood leaving the alveolus has a high concentration of oxygen and a low concentration of carbon dioxide.

31
Q

Wear us the composition of blood?

A

Plasma, red blood cells, white blood cells and platelets.

32
Q

What is the function of plasma?

A

Transport around the body:
- Molecules such as digested food are dissolved in the plasma and transported to cells
- Waste products from cells, such as carbon dioxide and urea, are transported in solution to the lungs or the kidneys for excretion.

33
Q

How are red blood cells adapted to carry oxygen?

A
  • They contain haemoglobin which binds to oxygen in the lungs and releases it in tissues with low oxygen levels
  • The biconcave disk shape increases the surface area for diffusion of oxygen
  • They are small and flexible so they can squeeze through tiny capillaries close to cells
  • They have no nucleus, increasing the space available for carrying oxygen / haemoglobin
34
Q

What are platelets?

A

Fragments of cells that aid blood clotting. They release clotting substances and clump together to help form a clot.

35
Q

What causes coronary heart disease?

A

Layers of fatty material build up inside the coronary arteries, making them narrower and reducing blood flow. Insufficient oxygen reaches the heart muscle, which causes heart attacks and damage to the heart.

36
Q

What are the treatments for CHD?

A

Statins - drugs for reduce blood cholesterol levels, slowing down the deposit of fatty material
Stents - a short, wire-mesh tube inserted inside the artery to support it
Mechanical / biological valves
Donor / artificial hearts

37
Q

What are the symptoms of a faulty heart valve?

A

Symptoms of poor oxygen supply to tissues: fatigue, shortness of breath and chest pain.

38
Q

What is health?

A

The state of a person’s physical and mental well-being.

39
Q
A
40
Q

What is the palisade mesophyll tissue’s structure and function?

A

Cell shape allows them to be tightly packed. Cells have lots of chloroplasts which maximised the amount of light energy that can be captured in photosynthesis.

41
Q

What is the spongy mesophyll tissue’s structure and function?

A

Cells are loosely packed with a large surface area and lots of air gaps. This maximises the rate of gas exchange for photosynthesis and allows gases to diffuse easily through the leaf to and from the stomata.

42
Q

What is the epidermal tissue’s structure and function?

A

A single outer layer of flattened cells that protect the leaf. A waterproof waxy surface layer on the upper epidermis prevents water loss. The lower epidermis contains many stomata and guard cells.

43
Q

What do the guard cells do?

A

Open and close the stomata.

44
Q

What are the stoma?

A

Pores in the leaf that gases can diffuse through.

45
Q

What do xylem cells transport through the plant?

A

Water and mineral ions.

46
Q

What do phloem cells transport through the plant?

A

Sugars made in leaves.

47
Q

Where in the plant is meristem tissue found?

A

Growing tips of shoots and the growing tips of roots.

48
Q

Explain why palisade mesophyll is the tissue that carries out most photosynthesis.

A

Cells here have the largest number of chloroplasts. There are many cells in a small space. It is close to the upper surface of the leaf where more light is available.

49
Q

What is meristem tissue made of?

A

Unspecialised cells that can divide repeatedly to make other cells. The new cells can then differentiate into other types of plant cell, allowing the plant to grow.

50
Q

What are two adaptations of the xylem tissue?

A
  • It is made of hollow tubes with end walls for free movement of water
  • Walls contains lignin that gives strength and stops tubes from collapsing
51
Q

How are water and minerals transported from the soil?

A
  • Root hair cells = osmosis
    mineral ions = active transport
  • The xylem tissue than carries this mineral and water solution from the roots to the stems and leaves
  • The flow of water up through the plant is called the transpiration stream
  • Water is lost from the leaves of a plant by evaporation and diffusion - a process called transpiration
  • This loss of water from the leaf pulls more water up through the xylem
52
Q

Describe the transport of dissolved food molecules.

A
  • The movement of dissolved food molecules through phloem tissue is called translocation
  • Food molecules are produced in the leaves by photosynthesis
  • This food is transported in the phloem to the rest of the plant, mostly as dissolved sugars
  • This sugar may be used immediately by cells or may be converted into starch for storage
53
Q

What are two adaptations of phloem cells?

A

They are elongated to carry sugar over longer distances. Pores in the end walls allow cell sap containing sugar to pass from one phloem cell to the next.

54
Q

How can sugar be used by cells?

A

Respiration
Growth / to make cell walls

55
Q

What environmental factors affect the rate of transpiration?

A
  • Humidity - humid conditions decrease the rate of transpiration because the concentration gradient for diffusion is reduced
  • Temperature - increases rate of transpiration
  • Air movement - increases transpiration rate as air disperses water they builds up outside the stomata
  • Light intensity - rate of transpiration increases

Biology (7 decks)

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