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Organ systems Flashcards

1
Q

What are the accessory organs of the digestive systems

A

Salivary glands, pancreas, liver, and gallbladder

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2
Q

What is the function of the salivary glands (parotids) and what enzyme do they have?

A

The salivary glands (parotids) secrete the enzyme amylase which initiates the breakdown starch. Their function is to create saliva to lubricate food and aid in swallowing. Creating a bolus a moistened ball like mass.

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3
Q

What is the function of the liver and what enzymes

A

The liver weighs 3 pounds and is the largest internal organ. It aids in the digestion of fats and synthesis bile (1 L daily). Many functions including regulating body metabolism, all blood leaving stomach and intestines flow through liver first. It also extracts toxins and absorbed nutrients from blood. The enzyme catalase acts to decompose toxins like hydrogen peroxide into safe products of oxygen and water. Alcohol and drugs can damage the liver over time. It produces bile, stores carbohydrates.

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4
Q

What is the function of the gallbladder

A

The gallbladder is a greenish organ, about three inches long under the liver. It concentrates and stores bile, produced in dilute form by the liver. Secretes the bile through the cystic ducts in the duodenum where it helps in digestion.

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5
Q

What is bile?

A

Bile acts like a detergent by emulsifying fats in the small intestine. Bile is composed of cholesterol, bile salts, and bile pigment. Not critical for survival. The crystallization of the bile salts in the gull bladder gives ruse to gallstones.

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6
Q

What is the function of the pancreas?

A

The pancreas secretes the hormone insulin. Insulin controls the blood sugar and lack of insulin leads to diabetes. When chyme leaves the stomach through the pyloric sphincter it is still acidic, it triggers the release of bicarbonate from the pancreas. This alkaline fluid aids in digestion in the small intestine. Pancreas produces digestive juices and releases them through a tube, to the duodenum. These juices contain enzymes that continue the breakdown of proteins, carbohydrates, and lipids. Work best in PH of 7-8.

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7
Q

What are the three enzymes that are associated with digestion?

A

Lipases - lipids
Carbohydrases - digest starches and sugars (carbohydrates)
Proteases - break apart proteins

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8
Q

What is disorder 1 of the digestive system.

A

Disorder 1 is peptic ulcers. A sore in the lining of the stomach or duodenum were HCl and pepsin a present .Ulcers form one tissues become inflamed due to the protective mucus that covers the lining has a weakened. This will begin with the acid resistant bacterium attach them self to the walls of the digestive track to prevent the area from producing a protective mucus. Antibiotics kill the bacteria.

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9
Q

What is disorder 2 of the digestive system?

A

Inflammatory bowel disease. Described as a general group of chronic diseases that all cars information in the intestines. (Chrons disease and ulcerative colitis) The result of a weekend immune system’s with incorrectly response to the environment triggers like bacteria or viruses which therefore cause inflammation in the digestive tract. IBD can only be treated as it is chronic there are special diet and medication‘s to reduce pain and inflammation and in severe cases surgery.

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10
Q

What is disorder 3 of the digestive system?

A

Constipation. Constipation as a common disorder of the digestive system or bowel movements are reduced to three per week or less. Stools are dry small and difficult to eliminate. Possible causes include low water intake, lack of good nerve and muscle function in the bowel. An on a healthy diet and lack of physical activity can also lead to constipation. Treatments include the conception of fibre which is in fruits vegetables and grains. Fibres are not broken down in the digestive system appear the same after passing through the digestive tract therefore the bulk and soft texture of dietary fibre is lead to constipation prevention

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11
Q

What is disorder 4 in the digestive system.

A

Hepatitis. Hepatitis is a disorder pertaining to the inflammation of the liver divided into hepatitis a, B, and C. Hep Anis usually caused by drinking contaminated water. Hep B is spread by sexual contact, and Hep C is caused by infected blood usually through viruses. Hepatitis A and B have a vaccine available for treatment however, hepatitis C does not have a vaccine to treat but there are direct active antiviral tablets available.

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12
Q

What is disorder 5 of the digestive system?

A

Cirrhosis. Cirrhosis is irreversible replacement of healthy liver tissue with nonfunctioning scar tissue. The main causes of cirrhosis are chronic alcoholism and hepatitis C. The only treatment is extreme lifestyle changes like stopping the abuse of alcohol and drugs, this will allow deliver to start possibly regenerating and restoring function.

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13
Q

What are the 4 steps to digestion?

A
  1. Ingestion
  2. Digestion
  3. Absorption
  4. Egestion
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14
Q

Function of the pharynx?

A

It connects the nasal cavity, oral cavity, trachea, and esophagus. It also helps to breath and digest food.

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15
Q

What is the function of the esophagus?

A

Food moves down the esophagus by peristalsis (muscular contraction) which is a series of coordinated muscular contractions. The points where the esophagus connects with the stomach is called the cardiac sphincter. If this sphincter doesn’t work correctly it can cause acid reflux and or heartburn which can cause Cancer.

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16
Q

What are the three different sections of the large intestine called?

A
  1. Ascending Colon
  2. Transverse Colon
  3. Descending Colon
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17
Q

What are the functions of the stomach?

A

In the stomach a combination of mechanical and chemical digestion takes place. The J-shaped stoma contains three muscle types which churn food into a paste. HCl is found in the stomach is very important for several reasons. This low pH is required to convert pepsinogen (inactive) to pepsin a digestive enzyme (active). HCl is also a defence mechanism because the acid kills invading microbes. Acid stimulates the duodenum secrete hormones to release bile and pancreatic juices. Mucus protects the lining of the stomach therefore the HCL does not break it down. This changes the food which is a bolus form into a liquified paste called chyme.

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18
Q

What must the PH be to convert pepsinogen to pepsin?

A

The HCL must be a PH of 2 to convert inactive pepsinogen to active pepsin. Which digests proteins.

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19
Q

What are the functions of the small intestine?

A

The small intestine measures up to 7 m in length but it’s only 2.5 cm in diameter which is why it’s called a small intestine. The food leaves the stomach through the pyloric sphincter and enters the duodenum. Intestinal juice is not only contain secretion from the small intestine, but also the large accessory digestive glands, such as the pancreas and liver. The small intestine is the site for most nutrient absorption about 80%. The lining has a fingerlike extensions called Velo which are also converted with tiny micro villi together these structures out to increase the surface area in order to maximize the absorption of food. Water soluble nutrients diffuse into the blood capillaries of the villi for transport to the liver and eventually to all of the cells of the body. The chyme enters the intestine is acidic therefore it must be neutralized.

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20
Q

What is the importance of the Villi and Micro villi in the small intestine?

A

The lining has a finger like extensions called villi which are also covered in with tiny micro villi. Together these structures how to increase the surface area in order to maximize the absorption of food. Water soluble nutrients diffuse into the blood capillaries of the villi for transport to the liver and eventually to all the thought of the body.

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21
Q

What are the functions of the large intestine?

A

The large intestine, or colon is 1.5 m long and about twice the diameter of the small intestine. Any on absorb materials are stored in the large intestine where water used in processing the food is partially reabsorbed back into the body. The remaining waste or passed along to the rectum then anus for elimination. Cellulose is the main component of feces, along with living and dead bacteria and water.

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22
Q

How does the pancreas help with digestion?

A

The pancreas produces sodium bicarbonate which neutralizes the acid in the chyme.

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23
Q

What is the function of the rectum?

A

To store feces before evacuation.

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24
Q

What is the function if the anus

A

The site if elimination of feces.

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25
What is the function if the teeth
Biting, tearing, and crushing food
26
Where does protein digestion first begin and why?
Stomach (Pepsin) because it needs a strong acidic environment to be digested.
27
What are enzymes and how do they work?
Enzymes are proteins molecules that speed up the chemical reactions of organisms. Without enzymes most of the reactions in a cell with proceed too slowly to maintain life. In order to catalyze a reaction the enzyme attaches to the reactants we call the reactants the substrates. Substrates bind into a very small portion of the enzyme the location where substrate binds to the enzyme is called the active site, and is usually a pocket or a groove in the three-dimensional structure of the protein. Enzymes are very specific to the types of substrates they attach. In most cases they were only bind to one type of molecule this means in different enzyme is needed forever reaction.
28
How does an enzymes environment affect its activity ?
Temperature and pH have an affect on the enzymes activity. All other reactions enzyme catalyzed reactions increase in speed with an increase in temperature. However, as the temperature increases beyond a particular point proteins begin to denature the anti-becomes less effective every enzyme has an optimal temperature at which works best. The typical human enzyme functions at 37°C body temperature. The optimal pH for in an enzyme is 7 to 8. Well pepsin the enzyme in the stomach is 2.
29
What enzyme acts in the stomach, what nutrient is acted upon and what is the resulting product?
Pepsin, acts on protein to produce a Dipeptide.
30
What enzyme is synthesized in the liver and stored and concentrated in the gallbladder , what nutrient is acted upon and what is the resulting product?
Bile, acts on lipids, produces emulsified fats, breaks down bigger globules to smaller globules
31
What enzyme acts in the salivary glands , what nutrient is acted upon and what is the resulting product?
Amaylase, acts on starch and produces a Disaccharide
32
What enzyme acts in the pancreas, what nutrient is acted upon and what is the resulting product?
Lipase, acids on lipids (triglycerides) and produces 1 glycerol and 3 fatty acid chains Proteases, Dipeptides, produces amino acids.
33
What is induced fit
Induced fit is when an enzyme will change its conformation to better fit the substrate.
34
Why is the pancreas so important
It makes lipase, carbohydrases, and proteases, (pancreatic digestive juices) Produces insulin to regulate blood sugar Releases basic fluid, sodium bicarbonate, neatrilizes the chyme ph 7-8
35
What is disorder 1 of the respiratory system?
Pheumonia, a disorder when alveoli in the lungs become inflamed and fill with fluids in one of the two lungs usally caused by a viral or bacterial infection. It interferes with the gas exchange and the body becomes starved of oxygen. Main causes are bacterial and viral infection. Lolular pneumonia is caused by the bacterium streptococcus pneumoniae. Treatment includes a preventative vaccine called pheumococcal vaccine. It provides long term protection from the bacterium. Bacterial treated by antibiotics.
36
What is disorder 2 of the respiratory system?
Bronchitis, The bronchi become red, inflamed , and filled with mucus which makes host of the disorder cough to expel the mucus. Causes, the short term of bronchitis is acute bronchitis and it officially caused by a bacterial infection. Chronic bronchitis, however, are causes by regular exposure to concentrations of dust or chemical compounds this form of bronchitis causes the cilia to gradually be destroyed. chronic bronchitis is also one of few lung diseases is that caused by smoking. Treatments include acute antibiotics however chronic bronchitis cannot be cured but treated by medications, quit smoking, and exercise programs.
37
What is disorder 3 of the respiratory system?
Asthma, A lung disease that causes chronic inflammation of the lungs and overproduction of mucus in the lungs. Causes, often starting in childhood irritants like pollen, dust, and smoke can trigger an inflammation of the bronchi and bronchioles. Treatment includes inhalers, dry power imhaler, aerosol inhalers, and asthma attacks can be sensed by peak flow metres.
38
What is disorder 4 of the respiratory system?
Emphysema, A chronic disease that affects the ability of the lungs to expel air because of the reduced respiratory surface for gas exchange. Most common cause is smoking, similar to chronic bronchitis it is also classified as COPD. Symptoms can be treated by using inhaler to open up the bronchioles and a low flow oxygen tank can boost the supply of oxygen to the body. Best way to treat us quit smoking.
39
What is disorder 5 if the respiratory system?
Cystic Fibrosis, A genetic disease that causes thigh build up of mucus in the lungs, resulting in infection, inflammation and damage to the lung tissues. The mucus makes it difficult to clear up the bacteria that causes lung infections. The causes are A mutation in a single gene, making versus single gene disorder. Does normal gene governs the cells balance of salt and water, but the mutated version of a gene produces a useless protein or just slightly altered causing the disease. Treatments have been researched and gene therapy, has been proven to be a significant treatment. The patient gets injected with the un mutated gene which fuses and instructs the DNA to make the correct protein. Still being explored .
40
What is inhalation and how does the body do it?
The intercostals muscles contract, lifting the rib cage up and out. The diaphragm contracts and pulls downward. The volume of the thoracic cavity increases, the pressure in the lungs drops and air comes rushing In
41
What is exhalation and how does the body do it?
The external intercostal muscles relax, allowing the rib cage to move down and in. The diaphragm relaxes, moving upward to resume its domed shape. The lungs return to normal, the pressure increases and air is pushed out.
42
What is the control centre of breathing?
The medulla oblongata. Controls the breathing by chemoreceptors that detect changed in the PH of the blood. Carbon dioxide + water = carbonic acid. An increased concentration of hydrogen ions, decreases the PH below the normal blood 7.4. Caused the medulla to send messages to stimulate breathing.
43
What are the four types of respiration
Breathing, external/ internal respiration, and cellular respiration
44
What is the formula for cellular respiration
C6H12O6+6O2 = 6CO2+6H2O+ATP
45
What is internal respiration
The exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide between blood in the capillaries and cells. RBC coming from the lungs deliver O2 to cells and remove CO2.
46
What is external respiration
Exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide between are and blood. Takes place in lungs (alveoli) diffusion movement of particles from an area of high concentration to an area of low concentration. The conc of oxygen in the blood of the capillaries entering the lung area. The conc of CO2 is greater in the blood than inhaled air, therfore oxygen diffuses across the capillary wall into the blood and co2 moves from the capillaries across the alveoli into the lungs.
47
What is the function of the nasal cavity
Use cilia and mucus to filter and capture foreign body’s. Then carry’s this mucus away from lungs and towards the pharynx. Where it is swallowed. The air is also warmed and humidified as it passes through the nasal passages.
48
What is the function of the pharnyx and epiglottis?
Connects to the nasal passages and mouth cavity. It then connects to the esophagus and the trachea. A flap of tissue to the epiglottis prevents food from entering the trachea. It is basically a bridge for food, water, and air from nose and mouth.
49
What is the function of the trachea and larnyx.
The tracheas walls are made of rings of cartilage which hold it open at all times. Most of the air that is breathed enters the larynx, the enlarged upper portion of the trachea. To get into the larnyx the air passes through the Glottis. A slit which can open or close varying degrees. The larnyx contains the vocal cords. Thin string fibres of tissue formed from the folds of mucous membrane.
50
What is the function of the esophagus?
To transport food entering the mouth into the stomach.
51
What is the lower respiratory area called
The thoracic cavity
52
What are the bronchi and bronchioles what are their function?
As the trachea ends it divides into two bronchi (left and right bronchus) each bronchus then divides into smaller and smaller bronchioles. The very small bronchioles are called terminal bronchioles. Chichester lead to a group of alveoli sacs . The bronchi and bronchioles conduct air in and out. TB are a branch of the pulmonary artery.
53
What are the alveoli sacs and what are their functions?
The alveoli are involved in the exchange of oxygen and CO2 between the air and the blood. Deoxygenated blood enters and oxygenated blood exits.
54
What is the caecum
The caecum is the sack that connect the small intestine to the colon
55
What is the ideal blood pressure
120/80
56
What are the top and bottom number of blood pressure
Top number: Systolic pressure, the pressure generated in the circulatory system when the ventricles contract and push blood from the heart the max number is taken Bottom number: diastolic pressure, the pressure generated in the circulatory system when the ventricles as full with blood, the lowest number before the ventricles contract.
57
How does blood keep flowing away from the heart and against gravity?
Small muscles surrounding The veins contract and relax to squeeze blood along the veins. One way valves inside the veins prevent blood from flowing backwards due to the pull gravity.
58
What is hypertension
Hypertension is continuous high blood pressure. This causes The heart to work harder for extended periods of time. This can cause damage to the arteries and increase the risk of heart attack stroke and kidney failure.
59
How do you measure blood pressure?
Blood pressure cuff Sphygmomanometer
60
What does the heartbeat Lub-Dub mean
Lub is the push of the blood through the atrioventricular valves and dub is the push of the blood through the semi lunar valves (closing) a woosh heard means their is a leak in the valve (heart murmur)
61
What are the steps of arteries veins and capalaires and functions
Arteries - Arterioles Veins - Venules 75% veins 25 arteries Capalaries - connect veins and arteries, have a thin wall that oxygen and nutrients can pass through into the organs and tissues. Also take waste products from your tissues.
62
What is the sequence of blood flow
Left ventricle Aortic semi lunar valve Aorta Arteries Capillaries Veins Vena cava Right atrium Tri cuspid valve Right ventricle Pulmonary semi lunar valve Pulminory artery Lungs Pulimonory vein Left atrium Mitrial or Bi cuspid valve 🔃🔃🔃
63
What are the three circuits of the circulatory system and functions
Cardiac circulation- the route taken by the blood within the heart Pulmonary circulation: The pathway of the blood from the heart to the lungs and back Systemic circulation: The route from the heart to the rest of the body
64
What are the components of blood, percentages and functions.
Plasma: 55%, fluid (water, dissolved gasses) - Transports nutrients, hormones, and proteins to the parts of the body that need it. White blood cells and platelets: 1% White blood cells, protect from disease and pathogens, two most important fighting cells are macrophages - engulf and digest pathogens lymphocytes (anti bodies) Red blood cells: 44% Specialized for oxygen transport, have no nucleolus packed with respiratory pigment hemoglobin, an iron containing molecule that binds oxygen. hemoglobin: The protein in red blood cells that is responsible for delivery of oxygen
65
Difference between red and white blood cells
Red cells: Carry oxygen, hemoglobin, iron bonded No nucleolus Produced in the bone marrow Common diseases include iron difency , and sickle cell anemia White cells: Fight infections, macrophages engulf microbes, lymphocytes makes antibodies Has nucleolus Produced in bone marrow Common diseases lukemia, autoimmune disease.
66
What controls the heart beat and how does it work
A bundle of specialized muscle tissue called the Sino atrial node (S-A node) stimulates the muscle fibres to contract and relax rhythmically. This node is often referred to as the pacemaker. The first artificial pacemaker was invented by Canadian John Hopps in 1950. Your heart is continuously beating, a heart Kept in a saline solution with the correct concentration may be for a long time after death. Impulse triggers that triggers the heartbeat actually originates from within the heart. It generates a signal that causes upper chambers to contract and signal the lower chambers to contract or pump.
67
What is an ECG and how does it work?
A doctor places electrodes on the skin over the heart, the electrodes transmit signals to the device that measures the electrical changes in the heart muscle. The SA node generates an electrical impulse that spreads over the two atria and make some contract simultaneously. As the atria contract the impulse reaches the atrioventricular node (A-V node) which is located near the atria on the partition between the two ventricles. Transmitting the electrical impulse over the walls of the ventricles to start their contraction, the tracing produced by electrocardio gram is called an electrocardiograph. Some conditions can cause the ventricles to start randomly contracting known as ventricular fibrillation. Can be stopped by a string electrical current to the heart, after SA node with be able to initiate regular heart beat.
68
What are some chemical regulations in your body
When relaxed S-A nose fires 70 times a minute, however may adjust to body’s needs. During excersise increase levels of CO2 in your blood, receptors and blood vessels send signals to the medulla oblongata, sends impulses along the nervous system, releases adrenaline, make sure SA node fire more rapidly. Your heart may also increase due to your fight or flight response, your nervous system releases adrenaline when you are nervous, excited, angry or after a sudden sharp pain.
69
How does the SA node make the heart beat
Sends an electrical signal to the atria making them contract.
70
What technologies are used to monitor the beating of a heart
ECG, Stethoscope
71
Three characteristics that make our circulatory system effecient
1. Oxygenated and deoxygenated blood is kept separate 2. 2 atria receive blood, 2 ventricle pump blood 3. Valves prevent backward blood flow
72
What are the specialized functions in structure of veins
They have valves and open or close to keep blood flow in one direction.
73
What are incisors for?
bite into food
74
What are molars for?
Grinding food
75
What are canines for?
Tearing food
76
Where are proteins first digested?
Stomach
77
What is the submaxillary salivary gland for?
Produces mucus
78
What is a heart attack
A heart attack is when something has caused the blood flow to your heart to diminish significantly or even become blocked, starving the heart of oxygen and slowly causing the heart muscles to die.
79
What are the main functions of the circulatory system?
1. Transports gasses (from respiratory system), nutrients molecules, and waste materials (from digestive system) 2. It regulates internal temperature and transports chemical substances that are vital to health from one body part to another 3. Protects against blood loss from injury and against disease-causing microbes or toxic substances introduced into the body
80
What is the heart
The muscular organ that pumps blood via the circulatory system to the lungs and body
81
what is a blood vessel
a hollow tube that carries blood to and from body tissues, include arteries, veins, and capillaries
82
what is blood
bodily fluid in which blood cells are suspended
83
What is an open circulatory system?
a circulatory system where the vessels open into the animal's body cavity. this is found in many invertebrate and is where the blood flows freely in the body cavity making direct contact with organs and tissue
84
what is A closed circulatory system?
all vertebrates, earthworms, squid and octopus require a system to circulate the blood at acertain pressure and speed to keep up with metabolic reactions. this system keeps the blood physically contained within vessels and seperate from other body tissues. the blood is kept seperate from the interstitial fluid.
85
What are the walls of the heart made of?
Cardiac muscle
86
What are the top chambers of the heart?
The top chambers are called atria that fill with blood returning from the body or the lungs.
87
What are the bottom chambers of the heart?
The bottom chambers of the heart are called ventricles where blood is recieved from the atria and pumped out to the body or lungs.
88
How are the atria and ventricles seperated?
Thick muscular wall called the septum
89
What does the right side of the heart do?
The right side of the heart receives blood coming back from the body and pumps it out to the lungs
90
Where is the blood received?
The blood is received from the superior vena cava where O2 poor blood comes from the head, chest and arms. It is also received from the inferior vena cava which collects blood from everywhere else. These vena cavae open into the right atrium
91
Where is the O2 poor blood sent after the right ventricle?
The right ventricle opens into the left and right pulmonary arteries which takes the O2 poor blood away to the heart for gas exchange.
92
What is the purpose of the left side of the heart
The left side receives O2 rich blood from the lungs and pumps it out to the rest of the body
93
Where is the gas exchanged?
In the capillaries attached to the alveoli sacs in the lungs
94
How does the heart receive this O2 rich blood
The pulmonary veins carry this O2 rich blood into the left atrium and then into the left ventricle (the most muscular chamber of the heart)
95
Where is the O2 rich blood sent after the left ventricle?
The left ventricle opens to the aortic arch which then leads to the biggest blood vessel in the body, the aorta, which transports the blood to the rest of the body. This vessel runs parallel to the spine.
96
How many valves does the heart have?
The heart has 4 valves. 2 of the valves are the tricuspid valve (made of 3 flaps) and the bicuspid (made of 2 flaps), these 2 valves are know as atrioventricular valves which seperate the atrium and ventricle on their respective side. The other two valves are known as the pulmonary semi-lunar or the aortic semi-lunar valve which seperates the respective ventricle from the vessel that follows.
97
What is a stroke?
When the blood flow to your brain is diminished significantly or even completely blocked, causing the brain to lack vital nutrients and oxygen carried by the blood.
98
What are the three general types of blood vessels
1. Arteries 2. Veins 3. Capillaries
99
What are smaller arteries and veins called?
Small arteries are called arterioles and small veins are called venuoles
100
What are capillaries?
Capillaries are the network of one-cell-thick vessels that where materials are transferred from blood to tissue cells as well as tissue cells to blood.
101
Characteristics of an artery
1. An artery has highly elastic walls 2. This elasticity allows the arteries to expand when the contraction of the ventricle pushes blood through it and relax when the ventricle muscles contract keeping the blood pumping in the right direction 3. When measuring pulse, you are measuring the rhythmic expansion of an artery as blood moves through it
102
Characteristic of Veins
1. Veins have thinner walls and larger inner circumference compared to arteries 2. Cannot expand or relax to help blood move back to heart 3. Have one-way valves that ensure no backflow of blood on the way to the heart, important in legs where the blood travels against gravity
103
Common things between arteries and veins
1. Both have three layers 2. outer layer is a covering of elastic and connective tissue 3. Middle layer consists of circular bands of elastic tissue and smooth muscle tissue 4. Inner layer is one cell thick and consists of flat, smooth cells 5. All work together to decrease friction within vessels
104
What is vasodilation
Widening of vessels in order to lose heat rapidly
105
What is vasoconstriction
narrowing of blood vessels in order to increase internal body temperature

Biology (5 decks)

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