Organ Systems Flashcards
Describe the blood flow in circulatory system
Double Circulation
- Blood drains from superior vena cava (from head and arms) or inferior vena cava (from lower trunk and legs) into the right atrium
- Right ventricle pumps deoxygenated blood out to the lungs via pulmonary artery
- Returns from the lungs to the left atrium through pulmonary vein
- Leaves heart through the aorta
Are arteries and veins oxygen-rich or oxygen poor?
What is the only vein and artery that is opposite of the other veins and arteries?
Also describe where they go
Artery- Oxygen rich away from heart
Vein- Oxygen poor blood back to heart
Pulmonary Artery- Oxygen poor blood to lungs from heart
Pulmonary Vein- Oxygen rich blood from lungs to heart
Describe the Two Parts of the Cardiac Cycle
Diastole- Heart is relaxed, blood flow from vein to heart chamber
* Blood pressure decrease
Systole- Heart muscle contracts, blood flow from atrium to ventricles and is pumped into arteries
* Blood pressure increase
Which blood vessel has the highest or lowest blood pressure?
Which blood vessel has the fastest slowest velocity?
Order blood vessel from thickest to thinnest walls
Arteries
- Have elastic fibers that recoil after stretching
- Thickest walls, highest blood pressure and velocity
Veins
- Have thinner walls compared to arteries
- Lower blood pressure and velocity
- One way valves permit blood to flow only toward heart
Capillaries
- Thin walls
- Exchange gas and fluid with interstitial fluid
- Also exchanges materials between blood and tissue cells
Blood pressure
- Depends on cardiac output and resistance of vessels
- Pressure is highest in arteries
- Blood velocity is slowest in capillaries
Hypertension
Cardiac output
Heart rate
Heart valves
Hypertension (high blood pressure) is a serious cardiovascular problem that in most cases can be controlled
Cardiac output: volume of blood that each ventricle pumps per minute (heart rate x stroke volume)
Heart rate is the number of heart beats per minute
Heart valves prevent backflow of blood
Sinoatrial and Atrioventricular nodes
Sinoatrial node “natural pacemaker”
→ Generates electrical impulses in atria and sets rate of heart contractions
Atrioventricular node
→ Relays signals to ventricles and trigger ventricular contractions
What do electrocardiograms do?
Detects electrical impulses in heart
Can provide data about heart health
Heart Diseases
Cardiovascular disease
Heart attack
Stroke
Atherosclerosis
Cardiovascular disease- Disorders of the heart and blood vessels
Heart attack
-Damage or death of cardiac muscle tissue
-Usually results from blocked coronary artery
Stroke
-Death of brain tissue due to lack of O2
-Results from rupture or blockage of arteries in the head
Atherosclerosis
-Fatty deposits called plaques develop in inner wall of arteries
-Narrows the passages which blood can flow
Blood cell types
Plasma
Leukocytes
Erythrocytes
Platelet
Plasma
-Contain various inorganic ions, proteins, nutrients, wastes, gases, and hormones
Red blood cells (erythrocytes)
-Transports O2 bound to hemoglobin
White blood cells (leukocytes)
-Fight infections
-Some are phagocytes which engulf and digest bacteria
Platelets
-Cell fragments that are involved in blood clotting
Anemia
Leukemia
What hormone stimulates RBC production?
Anemia- A condition in which the blood doesn’t have enough healthy red blood cells
- Caused by low amounts of hemoglobin or low number of red blood cells
- Causes fatigue due to lack of oxygen in tissues
Leukemia- cancer of leukocytes
The hormone erythropoietin (EPO) stimulates bone marrow to produce more red blood cells
What blood cell type clots blood?
Describe the process
Blood contains self-healing materials that activate when blood vessels are injured
Platelets adhere to connective tissue in damaged vessels and help convert fibrinogen to fibrin, forming a clot to plug the leak
What happens when a stem cell divides?
One daughter cell remains a stem cell
The other one can take a specialized function
Immunity Types
Active
Passive
Natural
Artificial
Active- Body is creating agent that is going to fight the disease
Passive- Body is not actively creating agent to fight disease
Natural- Created by body without medical intervention
Artificial- There is medical intervention involved
Define
Pathogens
Antigen
Antibody
Pathogens: agents that cause disease
Antigen: Any molecule that elicits an adaptive immune response
Antibody: Immune protein that attaches to antigen to counter its effects
Innate and Adaptive Immunity
Describe Herd Immunity
Innate immunity
○ Immunity that is there all the time
○ Innate means inborn
○ Non-specific
Adaptive Immunity
○ Acquired immunity
○ Activated after exposure to specific pathogens
○ Triggered by infections and vaccines
Herd immunity- When most people in a population are vaccinated, a disease cannot spread
Steps of immune response
- Innate external barrier (ex. Skin or acidic environment)
* If external barriers are breached*
| - Innate internal defenses (ex. Inflammatory response, killer cells, phagocytic cells)
If innate responses don’t clear infection
| - Adaptive responses (ex. Lymphocytes)
○ Defense against pathogens in fluids (humoral)
○ Defense against pathogens inside body cells (cell-mediated)
Lympathic System
Lymphatic vessels
Lymph nodes
Lymph
Lymphatic vessels: Vessels which collect fluid from body tissue and return it as lymph to blood
Lymph nodes: little round organs packaged with macrophages and lymphocytes
Lymph: similar to interstitial fluid that surrounds body cells but contain less oxygen and fewer nutrients
Interstitial Fluid
Interstitial fluid is the fluid that bathes body cells and is constantly renewed by the blood.
Two main functions of lympathic system
- Return tissue fluid back to circulatory system
- To fight infection
Two main lymphatic ducts
Right lymphatic duct
Thoracic Duct
Right lymphatic duct- Drains right side of body
Thoracic Duct- Drains left side of body
Lymphocyte and the two main types
B Lymphocyte
T Lymphocyte
Lymphocyte- Type of white blood cell part of immune system that originates from stem cells in bone marrow
- B Lymphocyte or B Cells: Involved with humoral immune response (action against free-floating antigens in body fluids)
- Produces antibodies to bind on antigen - T Lymphocytes or T cells: Involved with cell-mediated immune response (action against infected cells)
- Wipes out infected or cancerous cells
Both the humoral and cell-mediated immune responses are initiated when lymphocytes recognize antigens
Epitope
Antigen-binding site
Epitope: Site on antigen that antibodies and antigen receptors bind to
Antigen-binding site: Specific region on antigen receptor on antibody that recognizes an epitope
Clonal selection
Clonal selection
-The humoral and cell-mediated immune responses defend against a wide variety of antigens through a process known as clonal selection
-When an antigen enters the body, it activates only a subset of lymphocytes that have receptors specific for the antigen
-The selected cells multiply into clones of short-lived effector cells(plasma cells) specialized for defending against that antigen and into memory cells, which confer long-term immunity
What do antibodies do specifcally?
-Antibodies mark a pathogen by combining with it to form an antigen-antibody complex
-Antibodies have antigen-binding sites that bind to specific antigens
-Antibodies assist innate responses in eliminating the invader
Autoimmune disorders
Immunodeficiency disorders
Autoimmune disorders- the immune system target self-molecules
Immunodeficiency disorders- immune components are lacking and frequent infections occur
What veins does thoracic duct drain into?
What veins do right lymphatic duct drain into?
Thoracic duct drains into left subclavian vein or left internal jugular vein
Right lymphatic duct drains into right subclavian vein or right internal jugular vein
Three stages of hormone signaling
- Reception of signal occurs when hormone binds to specific receptor protein on or in target cell
- Signal transduction converts the signal from one form to another
- Response is a change in the cell’s behavior
Water soluble and lipid soluble hormones
Water-soluble hormones- Cannot diffuse through cell membrane, needs protein receptors to relay signals
* Typically peptides, proteins, and modified amino acids
Lipid-soluble hormones- Can diffuse through phospholipid bilayer, binds into receptors inside cell
* Typically steroids derived from cholesterol
Hypothalamus
- Main control center of endocrine system
- Receives information from nerves about external environment and internal body condition
- Responds by sending out appropriate nervous and endocrine signals
- Directly controls pituitary gland
Thyroid gland
Thyroid hormones
Thyroid gland is located in the neck under larynx
Thyroid hormones regulate
- Metabolism
- Reproduction
- Development
Sex hormones
Estrogen, progesterone, and androgens including testosterone are steroid sex hormones produced by gonad in response to signals from hypothalamus and pituitary
Pancreas
Pancreas is a gland with dual functions
1. Secretes digestive enzymes into small intestine
2. Secretes two protein hormones insulin and glucagon
Diabetes
Hyperglycemia
Hypoglycemia
Diabetes- body’s inability to produce or use insulin
Hyperglycemia- elevated blood glucose level
Hypoglycemia- lower levels of blood glucose (too much insulin into blood)
Antagonistic hormones
Antagonistic hormones- two hormones that oppose each other’s affects (insulin and glucagon)
Thyroid Imbalance
Hyperthyroidism/Hypothyroidism
Goiter
What is iodine used for?
Thyroid imbalance causes disease
- Hyperthyroidism leads to high blood pressure, weight loss, overheating, and irritability
- Hypothyroidism leads to low blood pressure, weight gain, coldness and lethargy
Iodine deficiency can produce a goiter- enlargement of thyroid
Iodine inhibits secretion of thyroid hormone
Also used to make thyroid hormone
Endocrine
Exocrine
Endocrine- Chemical messengers inside the body
Exocrine- Hormones outside the body
What hormones do these glands produce and their function?
Pineal gland
Anterior pituitary
Posterior pituitary
Thyroid
Parathyroid
Pancreas
Adrenal Cortex
Adrenal Medulla
Ovaries
Testes
Pineal gland- secretes melatonin (circadian rhythm)
Anterior pituitary- secretes GH (cell growth)
posterior pituitary- oxytocin (stimulates uterine muscles and mammary glands) ADH (water balance)
Thyroid- t3/t4 (metabolism), calcitonin (lowers blood Ca)
Parathyroid- PTH (raises blood Ca)
Pancreas- insulin (lowers blood sugar), glucagon (raises blood sugar)
Adrenal Cortex- Glucocorticoids (raise blood glucose) Mineralocorticoids (increase blood volume and pressure)
Adrenal Medulla- Epinephrine (adrenaline, fight or flight)
Ovaries- estrogen (female characteristics)
Testes- testosterone (male characteristics)
Oxygenated or Deoxygenated
Superior Vena Calva
Aorta
Left Ventricle
Right Ventricle
Pulmonary Artery
Brachial Artery
Jugular Vein
Superior Vena Calva- Deoxygenated
Aorta- Oxygenated
Left Ventricle- Oxygenated
Right Ventricle- Deoxygenated
Pulmonary Artery- Deoxygenated
Brachial Artery- Oxygenated
Jugular Vein- Deoxygenated
P Wave
T Wave
P Wave- Atrial depolarization
T Wave- Ventricle depolarization
What type of tissue is urinary bladder?
Transitional epithelium
What does the secretion and reabsorption in the nephrons
Capillaries
3 Steps of filtration
Filtration, secretion, and reabsorption
Secretion of hydrogen ions to maintain pH
Water, salt, bicarbonate ion (maintains pH), glucose and amino acids need to be reabsorbed
Common pH for urine
4.5-7.8
Why is urethral sphincter made of skeletal muscle
Sphincter made of skeletal muscle so you can control when to pee
What causes the adrenal medulla to secrete epinephrine and norepinephrine?
What hormone causes the adrenal cortex to secrete glucocorticoids and mineralcorticoids?
Nerve signals from hypothalamus stimulate the adrenal medulla to secrete epinephrine and norepinephrine.
ACTH from the pituitary gland causes adrenal cortex to secrete glucocorticoids and mineralcorticoids.
Define the locations of the pineal gland, hypothalamus, pituitary glands, thyroid gland, pancreas, adrenal cortex and medulla, ovaries, and testes.
Pineal gland is located in the brand
Hypothalamus is also located in the brain below the thalamus
Pituitary gland is located at base of the brain below hypothalamus
Thyroid gland is located near to the larynx in the neck
Adrenal cortex and medulla are located above the kidney
Pancreas is located near the middle of the kidneys
Ovaries and testes are located in the pelvis
Vertebrate innate immunities
Interferons
Neutrophils and Macrophages (phagocytes)
Natural killer cells
Complement system
Interferons: Proteins that interfere with viral infections
Neutrophils: Neutrophils are a type of white blood cell that specialize in engulfing and digesting pathogens
Macrophage: Macrophages are large, specialized white blood cells that engulf and digest cellular debris, pathogens, and other foreign substances, playing a key role in the immune system’s defense and tissue repair.
Natural killer cells: Cells which recognize and help kill cancer cells and virus-infected cells
Complement system: A group of proteins (around 30) that can act with other defense mechanisms
Phagocytosis and Pinocytosis
Phagocytosis is a cellular process in which cells engulf and digest solid particles
Pinocytosis is the ingestion of liquid substances by a cell
Tricuspid Valve
Pulmonary Valve
Mitral Valve (Bicuspid Valve)
Aortic Valve
Tricuspid Valve: Located between the right atrium and right ventricle in the heart.
Pulmonary Valve: Positioned at the exit of the right ventricle, leading to the pulmonary artery.
Mitral Valve (Bicuspid Valve): Found between the left atrium and left ventricle.
Aortic Valve: Positioned at the exit of the left ventricle, leading to the aorta.
Which electrical signals of the heart cannot be seen on an ECG?
Atrial repolarization
What organ functions in both reproductive and urinary system
Male urethra
Micturition
Renal
Adrenal/Suprarenal
Pulmonary
Cortex
Medulla
Micturition- Urination
Renal- Relating to kidney
Adrenal- Above kidney
Pulmonary- Relating to Lung
Cortex- Outside
Medulla- Inside
What type of animals have innate immunity and adaptive immunity?
Innate immunity in both vertebrates and invertebrates
Adaptive immunity only in vertebrates
Diuretic
Anti-Diuretic
Diuretic- Reduces water retention
Anti-diuretic (vasopressin)- Causes water retention
Where do B and T cells mature
Both develop in bone marrow
B cells mature in bone marrow, T cells mature in thymus
Glands
Hormones
Glands- Organs that send out chemical messengers
Hormones- The chemical messengers send by glands
Islets
Endocrine cells within the pancreas that produce insulin
What gland has both neurological and endocrine function (2 parts)
Pituitary gland
What machine is for kidney failure
Dialysis
What causes immune system hypersensitivity
Allergies
What of the heart’s electrical signals can you not see on EKG
Atrial repolarization
Most common place to check blood pressure
Brachial artery
How many liters in blood
What percent of blood is cellular
5 Liters of blood in body at any given time
Cellular part of blood make up 45% of blood volume
Numbers for sytolic and diastolic blood pressure
120 blood pressure- systolic
80 blood pressure- diastolic
Depolarization
Repolarization
Depolarization leads to the contraction of the heart, while repolarization leads to relaxation.
