Cellular Respiration, Animal body, Photosynthesis, Nutrition and Digestion

Question 1

Cellular Respiration

Answer 1

Cellular respiration is a series of chemical reactions that break down glucose to produce ATP, which may be used as energy to power many reactions throughout the body. There are three main steps of cellular respiration: glycolysis, the citric acid cycle, and oxidative phosphorylation.

Question 2

How many ATP molecules are created in respiration (two types) per 1 glucose molecule?

Answer 2

Aerobic cellular respiration- 32 ATP (2 from glycolysis and 2 from citric acid cycle (Krebs cycle) from substrate-level phophorylation. 28 ATP molecules are produced during oxidative phosphorylation.
Anaerobic cellular respiration- 2 ATP molecules (from glycolysis)

Question 3

What are the steps in

Aerobic and Anaerobic Celullar Respiration

Answer 3

Aerobic Cellular Respiration- Glycolysis to Citric Acid Cycle (Krebs cycle) to Oxidative Phosphorylation
Anaerobic Cellular Respiration- Glycolysis to Fermentation

Question 4

What happens during the three steps of aerobic cellular respiration?

Glycolysis
Pyruvate Oxidation and Citric Acid Cycle
Oxidative Phosphorylation

Answer 4

Glycolysis (in cytosol)- Begins cellular respiration by breaking down glucose into two molecules of pyruvate (3 carbon compound). ATP is formed by substrate-level phosphorylation.
Pyruvate oxidation and Citric acid cycle (in mitochondria)- Oxidizes pyruvate into acetyl CoA (2 carbon compound) and creates CO2 and NADH. With each turn of Krebs cycle, 2 carbons from acetyl CoA are added, 2 CO2 released, 3 NADH and 1 FADH2 is produced. Also supplies third stage with electrons.
Oxidative phosphorylation (also mitrochondria)- Electrons from NADH and FADH2 are passed down the electron transport chain to O2, which picks up H+ to form water (reduction). Energy released by the redox reactions is used to pump H+ into intermembrane space. In chemiosmosis, H+ gradient drives H+ back through the enzyme complex ATP synthase in the inner membrane so synthesize ATP.

Question 5

Define

Oxidation, Reduction, Redox Reactions

Answer 5

Oxidation- Process where there is a loss of electrons
Reduction- Process where there is a gain of electrons
Redox Reaction- Chemical reaction that involves a transfer of electrons between two molecule

Question 6

Fermentation

Answer 6

Way of harvesting chemical energy that does not require oxygen
After glycolysis in anaerobic cellular respiration, pyruvate is reduced to lactate (lactic acid fermentation) or ethanol and CO2 (alcohol fermentation)

Under anaerobic conditions, muscle cells, yeast, and certain bacteria produce ATP by glycolysis

Question 7

What happens in substrate-level phosphorylation

Answer 7

A phosphate group is transferred from an organic molecule to form ATP. It requires the help of an enzyme.

Question 8

What are the molecules converted in

Photosynthesis and Cellular Respiration

Answer 8

Photosynthesis- Light energy is used to convert H2O and CO2 into Glucose and Oxygen
Cellular Respiration- Oxygen and Glucose is broken down to make ATP, H2O and CO2

Both are redox processes.

Question 9

What are the steps in photosynthesis

Answer 9

Light-dependent reactions and Calvin cycle (light-independent reactions)

Question 10

Where do light reactions occur and what do they produce

Answer 10

Light reactions occur in the thylakoids which produce ATP and NADPH for the Calvin cycle. It also creates O2 from H2O.

Question 11

Where do light-independent reactions occur and what happens

Answer 11

Calvin cycle occurs in the stroma. In the Calvin cycle, CO2 is incorporated into organic compounds in a process called carbon fixation. The result is the formation of glucose.

Question 12

Define photoautotrophs and heterotrophs

Answer 12

Photoautotrophs- Organisms that use light energy and inorganic carbon to produce organic materials (can create food)
Heterotrophs- Consumers that feed on plant or animals or decompose organic material (cannot create food)

Question 13

1. Where does photosynthesis occur in a plant cell?
2. Describe the structure of the chloroplast.
3. What is chlorophyll?
4. What do thylakoids contain?

Answer 13

1.Photosynthesis occurs in the chloroplast of plant cells.
2.The chloroplasts are surrounded by a double membrane and contain stacks of thylakoids and thick fluid called stroma.
3.Chlorophyll (green) is a light-absorbing pigment in chloroplasts that play a role in converting solar energy into chemical energy.
4.Thylakoid membranes contain photosystems, each consisting of light-harvesting complexes and a reaction-center complex. (They absorb light and transfer energy)

Question 14

Anterior
and
Posterior

Answer 14

Anterior
Front (in humans)
Head (in fish)
Posterior
Back (in humans)
Tail (in fish)

The sternum is anterior to the spine.

Question 15

Dorsal
and
Ventral

Answer 15

Dorsal
Same as posterior (in humans)
Back (in fish)
Ventral
Same as anterior (in humans)
Belly (in fish)

Question 16

Superior and Inferior

Answer 16

Superior- Toward the head or higher/above
Inferior- Away from the head or lower/under

Question 17

Proximal and Distal

Answer 17

Proximal- Nearest point of attachment to to limb or structure
Distal- Farthest away from from attachment or origin

Higher than would be proximal (Elbow is proximal to wrist) Lower would be distal (Wrist is distal to elbow)

Question 18

Medial and Lateral

Answer 18

Lateral- Away from midline
Medial- Toward the midline of the body

Sternum is medial to the nipples, nipples are later from the sternum

Question 19

Define the planes

Midsagittal
Transverse/Axial/Horizontal
Coronal/Front
Oblique

Answer 19

Midsagittal- The plane splitting body in half in middle from anterior to posterior (separates left side from right side)
Transverse/Axial/Horizontal- The plane splitting body in half at the midsection area horizontally (separates top half of body from lower half)
Coronal/Front- Plane splitting body in half at the side from one shoulder to the other (separates front from back)
Oblique- 45 degree angle

Question 20

What are is the function of these vitamins and the issues when deficient

Vitamin A
Vitamin B
Vitamin C
Vitamin D
Vitamin E
Vitamin K

Answer 20

• Vitamin A- Essential for vision and immune system function, too little causes visions loss, too much causes liver damage.
• Vitamin B- The B-vitamin complex is involved in energy metabolism, nerve function, and the production of red blood cells. Deficiency of vitamin B9 (folate) would cause birth defects and pregnancy issues.
• Vitamin C- Important for collagen synthesis, wound healing, and immune system function. Deficiency would cause scurvy, characterized by fatigue, muscle weakness, joint and muscle aches, and potential gum disease.
• Vitamin D- Helps with calcium absorption and bone formation, too little causes rickets (bone deformities).
• Vitamin E- Acts as an antioxidant, deficiency in vitamin E may lead to muscle weakness, vision problems, and impaired immune function.
• Vitamin K- Essential for blood clotting and bone health. Vitamin K deficiency can lead to excessive bleeding and easy bruising.

Question 21

What are vitamins and minerals

Answer 21

A vitamin is an organic molecule required in very small amounts in your diet. Most function as coenzymes.
Minerals are inorganic nutrients, required in small amounts, that play a variety of roles.

Question 22

What are essential nutrients?

Answer 22

Essential nutrients are substances an animals needs but cannot produce from simple organic molecules.

Example: Essential fatty acids and essential amino acids

Question 23

What are the four main types of tissue

Answer 23

1. Epithelial
2. Connective
3. Muscle
4. Nervous

Question 24

Define

Organs and histology

Answer 24

Organs- Structures with discrete boundaries that are composed of two or more tissue types
Histology- Study of tissues and how they are arranged into organs

Question 25

Matrix

Answer 25

The extracellular matrix is a complex network of molecules that provides structural and biochemical support to surrounding cells. ## Footnote Blood is connective tissue in a liquid matrix

Question 26

What are the three shapes of epithelial tissue What are epithelials connected to adjacent cells by

Answer 26

Squamous Cuboidal Columnar Epithelial cells are connected to adjacent cells by specializations called intercellular junctions

Question 27

What are the four types of epithelial tissue

Answer 27

1. Simple epithelia: A single layer of closely packed cells that line surfaces and cavities, facilitating absorption, secretion, and filtration in tissues. 2. Stratified epithelia: Multiple layers of cells that provide protection against mechanical and chemical stress in tissues, commonly found in areas subjected to wear and tear. 3. Pseudostratified epithelia: A single layer of cells that appears stratified due to variations in cell height, often containing cilia and goblet cells, primarily lining the respiratory passages. 4. Transitional epithelia: Specialized stratified epithelium designed to stretch and accommodate changes in organ volume, commonly found in the urinary system lining the urinary bladder and ureters.

Question 28

# What is the definition of Anatomy and Physiology

Answer 28

Anatomy- The study of the body Physiology- Study of function

Question 29

Positive and Negative Feedback

Answer 29

Positive Feedback- Amplify initiating stimuli, moves system away from starting state (amplifies change) Negative Feedback- Counteract changes of different properties (reduces change)

Question 30

What are the four steps of digestion?

Answer 30

1. Ingestion 2. Digestion (Chemical and Mechanical) 3. Absorption 4. Elimination

Question 31

Difference between Intercalated Discs and Intervertebral Discs

Answer 31

Intercalated Discs- Discs that join cardiocytes from end to end (located in the heart) Intervertebral Discs- Fibrocartilage discs that sit in between vertebrae in the vertebral column for flexibility (located in spine)

Question 32

3 Types of Muscle

Answer 32

1. Skeletal Muscle (striated): Many peripheral nuclei 2. Cardiac Muscle (striated): Central single nuclei 3. Smooth Muscle (no striations): Central single nuclei

Question 33

3 Types of Cartilage

Answer 33

1. Fibrocartilage (contains collagen fibers: Strong, flexible fibers) 2. Hyaline Cartilage (contains collagen fibers: Strong, flexible fibers) 3. Elastic Cartilage (contains elastic fibers: Stretchable fibers)

Question 34

Peristalsis and Mastication

Answer 34

Peristalsis: Peristalsis is the wave-like muscle contractions that move food through the digestive tract. (esophagus, stomach, small intestine, and large intestine) Mastication: Mastication is the process of chewing, breaking down food into smaller pieces for digestion. (mouth)

Question 35

# Define each term Suspension feeders Substrate feeders Fluid feeders Bulk feeders

Answer 35

Suspension feeders capture food particles from the surrounding medium.​ Substrate feeders live in or on their food source and eat their way through it.​ Fluid feeders suck nutrient-rich fluids from a living host.​ Bulk feeders ingest large pieces of food.​

Question 36

What enzymes break down nucleic acids, carbohydates, fats, and proteins? And into components?

Answer 36

Carbohydrates are digested by *amylase*, Fats by *lipase*, Protein by *protease*, Nucleic acids by *nuclease*. Protein -> Amino Acids Carbohydrates -> Monosaccharides Lipids -> Glycerol fatty acids Nucleic Acids -> Nucleotides | Pepsin in gastric juice starts to break down proteins

Question 37

# What is the function of Microvilli

Answer 37

They are tiny projections on cells that increase the surface area of a cell for more effective absorption of substances.

Question 38

# Functions of Pylorus Duodenum Jejunum Ileum Cecum Sigmoid Colon

Answer 38

**Pylorus**- Muscular ring which connects stomach to small intestine, contracts to let food from stomach pass to small intestine **Duodenum**- Beginning of absorption in small intestine, this is where digestive juices from pancreas and gallbladder are mixed into the partially digested food. **Jejunum**- As the middle part of the small intestine, the primary function of the jejunum is to absorb sugars, amino acids, and fatty acids. **Ileum**- Its main function is to continue absorbing nutrients, particularly bile salts and vitamin B12 before the remaining undigested material moves into the large intestine. **Cecum**- Located in the ascending colon, its function is absorption of large volumes of water and electrolytes **Sigmoid Colon**- Located in the descending colon, its primary function is to store fecal material before it is ready to be eliminated from the body.

Question 39

# What is the difference between Central Nervous System Peripheral Nervous System

Answer 39

Central Nervous System- Brain, Spinal Cord Peripheral Nervous System- Nerves spread through body

Question 40

# Explain each part of a neuron Cell body Dendrites Axons Myelin sheath Synapse Neurotransmitter Glia

Answer 40

Cell body: contains nucleus & organelles Dendrites: receive incoming messages Axons: transmit messages away to other cells Myelin sheath: fatty insulation covering axon, speeds up nerve impulses Synapse: junction between 2 neurons Neurotransmitter: chemical messengers sent across synapse Glia: cells that support neurons

Question 41

Integumentary System

Answer 41

Skin, Hair, and Nail Epidermis (Most outerlayer of skin)- Epithelial Tissue Dermis (Deeper layer of skin)- Connective Tissue

Question 42

Which vitamins are fat or water soluble?

Answer 42

Water soluble- Vitamin B and C Fat soluble- Vitamin A, D, E, and K

Question 43

All the organs of the alimentary canal

Answer 43

The alimentary tract of the digestive system is composed of the mouth, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, small and large intestines, rectum and anus.

Question 44

What tissues attach bone to bone, or muscle to bone? Isometric vs. Range of Motion Pain, Injury of which tissue?

Answer 44

Bone to Bone: Ligaments, Muscle to Bone: Tendons Ligament Injury: Sprain, Tendon Injury: Strain Isometric pain should be related to sprain, range of muscle using muscle that causes pain should be a strain.

Question 45

# Which parts of the body are Fibrocartilage, Elastic Cartilage, and Hyaline Cartilage found

Answer 45

Fibrocartilage- Pubic symphysis, menisci, and intervertebral discs Elastic Cartilage- External ear and epiglottis Hyaline Cartilage- articular cartilage, costal cartilage, trachea, larynx, fetal skeleton

Question 46

# Vascular or Avascular Epithelial Tissue Cartilage Tissue (Connective) Bone (Connective) Nervous Tissue Muscle Tissue

Answer 46

Epithelial- Avascular, they are nourished by connective tissue underneath Cartilage- Avascular Bone-Vascular Nervous tissue- Avascular Muscle tissue- Vascular

Question 47

# Vocabulary Fibroblasts Adipocytes Chondrocytes Osteocytes Myocytes Perichondrium

Answer 47

Fibroblasts: Cells that produce and maintain the extracellular matrix of connective tissue Adipocytes: Cells specialized for fat storage. Chondrocytes: Cells embedded in cartilage, responsible for maintaining the cartilaginous matrix. Osteocytes: Cells found in bone tissue, involved in maintaining bone matrix. Myocytes or Muscle Fibers: Muscle cells responsible for contraction. Perichondrium- Connective tissue that envelops cartilage at a joint.

Question 48

# What molecules are oxidized or reduced in Glycolysis Pyruvate Oxidation and Krebs cycle Oxidative Phosphorylation Light Reactions Calvin Cycle

Answer 48

**Cellular Respiration**: *Glycolysis*: Oxidized: Glucose *Pyruvate Oxidation*: Oxidized: Pyruvate *Citric Acid Cycle (Krebs Cycle)*: Oxidized: Acetyl CoA Reduced: NAD⁺ (makes NADH) *Electron Transport Chain (ETC) or Oxidative Phosphorylation*: Oxidized: NADH Reduced: Oxygen (O₂), forming water (H₂O) **Photosynthesis**: *Light-Dependent Reactions*: Oxidized: Water (H₂O), leads to production of Oxygen (O₂) Reduced: NADP⁺ to NADPH, and ADP to ATP *Calvin Cycle*: Oxidized: NADPH Reduced: Carbon dioxide (CO₂), forming glucose