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Worldview > On Guard > Flashcards

On Guard Flashcards

1
Q

What does the term ‘apologetics’ mean?

A

Apologetics comes from the Greek word apologia, which means a defense, as in a court of law.

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2
Q

What is the primary focus of Christian apologetics?

A

Making a case for the truth of the Christian faith.

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3
Q

According to 1 Peter 3:15, how should we present our defense?

A

With gentleness and respect.

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4
Q

True or False: Apologetics is the same as apologizing for being a Christian.

A

False.

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5
Q

What is the attitude we should have when giving our defense of faith?

A

Gentle and respectful.

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6
Q

What should we avoid when discussing our faith with non-believers?

A

Quarreling and becoming argumentative.

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7
Q

Fill in the blank: An argument in the philosophical sense is just a series of statements leading to a _______.

A

conclusion.

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8
Q

How does having good arguments affect our demeanor during discussions?

A

It makes us less apt to become quarrelsome or upset.

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9
Q

What should be a common Christian reaction when faced with personal attacks during debates?

A

Feeling compassion for the unbeliever.

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10
Q

What biblical principle is highlighted in good apologetics?

A

Speaking the truth in love (Eph. 4:15).

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11
Q

What is the command given in 1 Peter 3:15 regarding our beliefs?

A

Always be prepared to make a defense to anyone who asks you for a reason for the hope that is in you.

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12
Q

True or False: Good apologetics involves making someone feel sorry for their beliefs.

A

False.

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13
Q

Why is it important to have good reasons for what you believe?

A

It helps you remain calm and confident when under attack.

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14
Q

What is the primary goal of Christian apologetics?

A

To defend the truth of the Christian faith.

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15
Q

Fill in the blank: Apologetics is not about making others _______ for your faith.

A

sorry.

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16
Q

What is the primary purpose of apologetics according to the text?

A

To provide evidence for the truth of Christianity and to shape culture.

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17
Q

How did Jesus use evidence to support His claims?

A

He appealed to miracles and fulfilled prophecy.

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18
Q

What specific arguments did Peter use in his sermon on Pentecost?

A

He appealed to Jesus’ miracles, fulfilled prophecy, and Christ’s resurrection.

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19
Q

What approach did the apostles take when addressing non-Jews?

A

They sought to show the existence of God through His handiwork in nature.

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20
Q

According to Romans 1:20, what can all men know from nature?

A

That God exists.

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21
Q

In 1 Corinthians 15:3-8, what evidence does Paul use to support Christianity?

A

Eyewitness testimony of Jesus’ resurrection.

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22
Q

True or False: The apostles relied solely on the Holy Spirit without providing evidence for their claims.

A

False.

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23
Q

List three reasons why apologetics is important for Christians today.

A
  • Shaping culture
  • Providing evidence for faith
  • Countering secularism
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24
Q

What metaphor is used to describe the struggle for the soul of America?

A

Culture war.

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25
Q

Who are the so-called ‘New Atheists’ mentioned in the text?

A
  • Sam Harris
  • Richard Dawkins
  • Christopher Hitchens
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26
Q

Fill in the blank: The perception of Christians in American society is often that they are _______.

A

[goofy curiosities].

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27
Q

Why is the cultural backdrop significant when sharing the gospel?

A

Because the gospel is always heard against the backdrop of the culture.

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28
Q

What impact does secularism have on the perception of Christianity?

A

It leads to Christianity being dismissed as mere superstition.

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29
Q

How did the author describe the reception of Christianity in Western Europe?

A

It’s hard for the gospel to get a fair hearing.

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30
Q

What was a student’s reaction when the author spoke at a university in Sweden?

A

The student asked, ‘What are you doing here?’ indicating surprise at a Christian philosopher.

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31
Q

What is the goal of training Christians in apologetics?

A

To provide solid evidence for beliefs and good answers to objections.

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32
Q

True or False: Arguments and evidence alone will cause people to become Christians.

A

False.

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33
Q

What environment do arguments and evidence help create for the gospel?

A

An environment in which Christian belief is seen as reasonable.

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34
Q

Fill in the blank: Secularism is a worldview that allows no room for the _______.

A

[supernatural].

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35
Q

What is relativism?

A

The view that something is relative rather than absolute.

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36
Q

Give an example of relativism.

A

Being rich is relative; one may be rich compared to some cultures but not others.

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37
Q

True or False: Relativism suggests that moral principles are absolute truths.

A

False.

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38
Q

What are the benefits of apologetics in one’s personal Christian life?

A

Three benefits: increased confidence in sharing faith, helps maintain faith during doubt, and promotes deeper understanding of beliefs.

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39
Q

How does knowing why you believe impact sharing your faith?

A

It makes you more confident in sharing your faith with others.

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40
Q

What percentage of Christian high school students reportedly quit church involvement after graduation?

A

Forty percent.

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41
Q

Fill in the blank: Apologetics can help you to keep the faith in times of _______.

A

doubt.

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42
Q

What is a common reason for students abandoning their faith?

A

Lack of answers to questions about their faith.

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43
Q

What does the author believe the church is failing to provide for youth?

A

Training in the defense of Christianity’s truth.

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44
Q

Why do many students become ‘sitting ducks’ for non-Christian philosophies?

A

Because they lack preparation and training in apologetics.

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45
Q

What can training in apologetics help parents do?

A

Explain to their children why they believe as they do.

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46
Q

True or False: Apologetics guarantees that one will keep their faith.

A

False.

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47
Q

What impact can reading an apologetics book have on someone struggling with faith?

A

It can help bring them back from the brink of abandoning their faith.

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48
Q

What deeper questions does studying apologetics lead to?

A

Questions about the existence and nature of God, the origin of the universe, and moral values.

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49
Q

Fill in the blank: Studying apologetics helps you become a deeper and more _______ person.

A

interesting.

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50
Q

How does studying apologetics affect one’s ability to articulate beliefs?

A

It enables one to provide reasons for their beliefs rather than just personal opinions.

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51
Q

What is a significant cultural issue mentioned in relation to American society?

A

Superficiality and fixation on celebrities and entertainment.

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52
Q

What transformation can occur by wrestling with deep questions in apologetics?

A

You will become more thoughtful and well-rounded.

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53
Q

What is a common belief about the role of apologetics in winning unbelievers to Christ?

A

Many people believe that apologetics is ineffective in winning unbelievers to Christ.

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54
Q

What should we expect regarding the response of unbelievers to apologetic arguments?

A

We should expect that most unbelievers will remain unconvinced by our apologetic arguments.

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55
Q

Why might some people be disappointed with the effectiveness of apologetics?

A

They may have false expectations about the number of people who will respond positively to the gospel.

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56
Q

What is the cumulative effect of apologetic arguments on unbelievers?

A

The cumulative effect is unknown, as arguments may plant seeds that grow over time.

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57
Q

Why should Christians bother with the minority of unbelievers who respond to apologetics?

A

Every person is precious to God and has the potential for significant influence.

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58
Q

Which professions tend to resonate most with apologetic arguments?

A

Engineers, people in medicine, and lawyers.

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59
Q

True or False: The general conclusion that apologetics is ineffective in evangelism is accurate.

A

False.

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60
Q

Who is Lee Strobel, and what has he experienced regarding apologetics?

A

Lee Strobel has noted numerous people coming to Christ through his books.

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61
Q

What has been the author’s experience after giving talks on apologetics?

A

Many students have indicated decisions for Christ after such presentations.

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62
Q

Fill in the blank: The impact of one person’s conversion, such as ________, continues to be significant.

A

C. S. Lewis

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63
Q

What significant change occurred in the life of Sayd al-Islam from Oman?

A

He lost his Muslim faith, became an atheist, and then came to believe in God through apologetic works.

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64
Q

What is the significance of C. S. Lewis in the context of Christian apologetics?

A

He became one of the most influential Christian apologists of his generation.

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65
Q

What is a key factor in effectively presenting apologetics to bring people to Christ?

A

Combining apologetics with a gospel presentation and personal testimony.

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66
Q

How many copies of C. S. Lewis’s books have been sold worldwide?

A

More than one hundred million copies.

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67
Q

What did the man from Oman express about his situation regarding his faith?

A

He must lead a double life due to the risk of being killed for his beliefs.

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68
Q

What is reductio ad absurdum?

A

A form of argument that proves a statement by demonstrating that its opposite is absurd.

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69
Q

What does ‘meaning’ refer to in this context?

A

Significance, why something matters.

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70
Q

What does ‘value’ pertain to?

A

Good and evil, right and wrong.

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71
Q

What is ‘purpose’ related to?

A

A goal, a reason for something.

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72
Q

What is the difference between objective and subjective?

A

Objective is real or true independent of opinion; subjective is a matter of personal opinion.

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73
Q

Provide an example of an objective fact.

A

Water is H2O.

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74
Q

Provide an example of a subjective statement.

A

Vanilla tastes better than chocolate.

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75
Q

True or False: ‘Objective’ is like a subject or a person.

A

False.

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76
Q

What historical events were occurring when the author was speaking on university campuses in Europe?

A

The collapse of the Soviet Union and the fall of the Iron Curtain.

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77
Q

What did Andrei Grib mean by ‘proof by the opposite’?

A

You can prove something to be true by showing its opposite is false.

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78
Q

What was the implication of Marxist atheism in Russia according to Grib?

A

It didn’t work, leading people to believe the opposite must be true.

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79
Q

Why do some people think God is irrelevant?

A

They take God for granted and do not consider the implications of His non-existence.

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80
Q

What do Sartre and Camus argue about life without God?

A

They argue that life is absurd if God does not exist.

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81
Q

What are the implications of atheism regarding meaning, value, and purpose?

A

They are ultimately human illusions; life is objectively meaningless, valueless, and purposeless.

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82
Q

Fill in the blank: If atheism is true, then life is really _______.

A

objectively meaningless.

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83
Q

What does the author claim about atheists’ experience of life?

A

They may not experience life as dull and meaningless, but their beliefs are subjective illusions.

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84
Q

What does the author mean by ‘ultimate meaning’?

A

Meaning that is not merely a human illusion but has a foundation in existence.

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85
Q

What is the central question related to the existence of God according to the text?

A

Whether God exists is the most important question a person can ask.

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86
Q

What is the consequence of the belief that God does not exist?

A

Both man and the universe are inevitably doomed to death

This leads to a life that is ultimately meaningless.

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87
Q

What does Paul Tillich refer to as ‘the threat of nonbeing’?

A

The awareness that one will cease to exist and die

This thought can be overwhelming and threatening.

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88
Q

How does Sartre view the passage of time in relation to existence?

A

Several hours or several years make no difference once you have lost eternity.

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89
Q

What will eventually happen to the universe according to scientists?

A

The universe will expand, grow colder, and all matter will collapse into dead stars and black holes.

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90
Q

What is the ultimate fate of human civilization if God does not exist?

A

It is doomed to destruction, with no hope for escape.

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91
Q

What does the absence of God imply about the meaning of life?

A

Life itself becomes absurd and without ultimate significance, value, or purpose.

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92
Q

Fill in the blank: If each individual person passes out of existence when he dies, then what ultimate meaning can be given to his life? Does it really matter in the end whether he ever existed at all? Sure, his life may be important relative to certain other events, but what’s the ultimate significance of any of those events? If everything is doomed to destruction, then what does it matter that you _______ anything?

A

influenced

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93
Q

According to the text, what is the horror of modern man?

A

Because he ends in nothing, he is nothing.

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94
Q

What does mere duration of existence fail to provide for life to be meaningful?

A

It does not provide ultimate significance.

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95
Q

What does the astronaut in the science-fiction story realize about immortality?

A

He realizes that mere existence without purpose is a curse.

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96
Q

What is the implication of life ending at the grave regarding moral behavior?

A

It makes no ultimate difference whether you live as a Stalin or as a Mother Teresa.

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97
Q

True or False: If there is no God, then there is an objective standard of right and wrong.

A

False

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98
Q

What does Richard Dawkins suggest about human worth from an atheistic perspective?

A

There is no design, no purpose, no evil, no good, only indifference.

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99
Q

What happens to moral values in a world without God?

A

They become subjective and culturally relative.

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100
Q

Fill in the blank: If death stands with open arms at the end of life’s trail, then what is the _______ of life?

A

goal

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101
Q

What is the ultimate fate of mankind in a universe without God?

A

We are here to no purpose.

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102
Q

According to Ecclesiastes, what is the fate of humans compared to beasts?

A

They have the same fate; all go to the same place.

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103
Q

What does the ancient writer of Ecclesiastes conclude about life?

A

‘Vanity of vanities! All is vanity.’

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104
Q

What does the absence of God imply about the universe and human existence?

A

They exist to no purpose since they are products of chance.

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105
Q

What does the phrase ‘if God is dead, then man is dead too’ imply?

A

Without God, there is despair.

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106
Q

What does Nietzsche’s madman seek in the marketplace?

A

God

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107
Q

What is the reaction of the crowd to the madman’s declaration?

A

They laughed and taunted him

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108
Q

What does the madman accuse the crowd of doing?

A

Killing God

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109
Q

What metaphor does Nietzsche use to describe humanity’s actions regarding God?

A

Drinking up the sea and wiping away the entire horizon

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110
Q

What does the madman question about the direction of existence after the death of God?

A

Are we not straying as through an infinite nothing?

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111
Q

What does the madman imply about the state of the world after God’s death?

A

It has become colder and is filled with night

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112
Q

What does the madman say is necessary in the morning after God’s death?

A

Lanterns must be lit

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113
Q

What profound realization does Nietzsche predict will come to modern man?

A

The implications of atheism

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114
Q

What age does Nietzsche predict will be ushered in by the realization of atheism?

A

An age of nihilism

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115
Q

Fill in the blank: Most people do not reflect on the consequences of _______.

A

atheism

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116
Q

What pressing question does Nietzsche’s madman pose to humanity?

A

How shall we, the murderers of all murderers, comfort ourselves?

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117
Q

True or False: The madman believes that the death of God has already been fully realized by society.

A

False

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118
Q

What does Nietzsche suggest has not yet reached the ears of man?

A

The tremendous event of God’s death

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119
Q

What does the madman do at the end of his declaration?

A

Dashes his lantern to the ground

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120
Q

What does Nietzsche imply about the future understanding of atheism’s consequences?

A

It will lead to a deeper understanding of meaning and value in life

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121
Q

What is the fundamental problem with living consistently and happily within an atheistic worldview?

A

It is impossible to live consistently and happily; if you live consistently, you will not be happy; if you live happily, it is only because you are not consistent.

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122
Q

Who described modern man as residing in a two-story universe?

A

Francis Schaeffer

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123
Q

What does the lower story in Schaeffer’s two-story universe represent?

A

The finite world without God, where life is absurd.

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124
Q

What does the upper story in Schaeffer’s two-story universe represent?

A

Meaning, value, and purpose.

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125
Q

According to Albert Camus, what is the only serious philosophical question?

A

Suicide

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126
Q

What does Camus argue despite life’s absurdity?

A

He argues against suicide and for promoting human brotherhood.

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127
Q

What is the criticism against Camus regarding his views on life and ethics?

A

He inconsistently holds both to the absurdity of life and the ethics of human love and brotherhood.

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128
Q

What is the logical inconsistency in claiming there are no values while affirming values of love and brotherhood?

A

The view that there are no values is incompatible with affirming the values of love and brotherhood.

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129
Q

What did Bertrand Russell admit about ethical values?

A

He could not live as though ethical values were simply a matter of personal taste.

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130
Q

What did Dostoyevsky say about moral permissibility in a world without God?

A

All things are permitted.

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131
Q

What significant event did the author reference to illustrate the horror of a world devoid of value?

A

The Holocaust

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132
Q

What did Nietzsche proclaim regarding good and evil?

A

The necessity of living beyond good and evil.

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133
Q

What is the contradiction in the views of Richard Dawkins regarding morality?

A

He condemns actions as immoral while asserting there is no good or evil.

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134
Q

How do most people who deny purpose in life often live happily?

A

By making up some purpose or by not carrying their view to its logical conclusions.

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135
Q

Fill in the blank: The outspoken atheist Steven Weinberg described human life as a more-or-less ______ outcome of a chain of accidents.

A

farcical

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136
Q

What does Weinberg find hard to realize about the universe?

A

That it is just a tiny part of an overwhelmingly hostile universe.

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137
Q

What does the term ‘tragedy’ express in Weinberg’s description of the human predicament?

A

An evaluation of a situation.

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138
Q

According to atheism, what significance do human pursuits have?

A

None; they have no objective significance.

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139
Q

What is the dilemma of modern man according to the text?

A

The atheistic worldview is insufficient to maintain a happy and consistent life.

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140
Q

What happens if we try to live consistently within the atheistic worldview?

A

We shall find ourselves profoundly unhappy.

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141
Q

What does Dr. L. D. Rue advocate as a means of escape from the modern man’s predicament?

A

We deceive ourselves by means of some ‘Noble Lie’ into thinking that we and the universe still have value.

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142
Q

According to Rue, what has been the lesson of the past two centuries?

A

Intellectual and moral relativism is profoundly the case.

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143
Q

What are the two options presented by Rue for coping with modern man’s predicament?

A

The madhouse option and the totalitarian option.

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144
Q

What is the ‘Noble Lie’ as defined in the text?

A

A lie that deceives us, tricks us, and compels us beyond self-interest.

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145
Q

What must modern man embrace in order to survive, according to the text?

A

Self-deception.

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146
Q

How does biblical Christianity challenge the worldview of modern man?

A

It asserts that God exists and life does not end at the grave.

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147
Q

What are the two conditions necessary for a meaningful life according to biblical Christianity?

A
  • God
  • Immortality
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148
Q

What does the text suggest about the consequences of God’s existence?

A

If God does not exist, then life is futile; if God does exist, then life is meaningful.

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149
Q

What does the author argue a rational person should choose if the evidence for God’s existence and non-existence were equal?

A

A rational person ought to choose to believe in God.

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150
Q

What famous quote by Pascal is referenced in the text?

A

We have nothing to lose and infinity to gain.

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151
Q

What is the author’s modest goal in discussing the absurdity of life without God?

A

To encourage the reader to think about the question of God’s existence and its profound consequences.

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152
Q

Fill in the blank: The consequence of relativism is that the quest for self-fulfillment becomes radically _______.

A

privatized.

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153
Q

True or False: The text claims that living without God can still be a source of happiness.

A

False.

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154
Q

What happens if God does not exist according to the text?

A

All human life as well as every individual life will eventually be destroyed.

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155
Q

What is the implication of having no God and no life beyond the grave?

A

Life itself has no objective meaning, value, or purpose.

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156
Q

What is the significance of immortality in relation to meaning?

A

Without immortality your life has no ultimate significance and makes no difference to the world’s outcome.

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157
Q

What does the absence of God imply about the framework for human life?

A

There is no broader framework within which man’s life can be seen to matter.

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158
Q

How does the lack of immortality affect moral accountability?

A

Without immortality there is no moral accountability, and your moral choices become inconsequential.

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159
Q

What are moral values viewed as without God?

A

Moral values are just delusions ingrained into us by evolution and social conditioning.

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160
Q

What is the ultimate destination of life without immortality?

A

Extinction in death.

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161
Q

What does the absence of God suggest about one’s purpose in life?

A

There is no purpose for which you came into this world.

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162
Q

Is it possible to live consistently and happily with an atheistic worldview?

A

No, it is impossible.

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163
Q

What happens if we live happily as atheists?

A

It is only by inconsistently affirming meaning, value, and purpose for our lives.

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164
Q

What is the consequence of living consistently as atheists?

A

We shall be profoundly unhappy and even in despair.

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165
Q

What does biblical Christianity assert about God and life?

A

God exists and life does not end at the grave.

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166
Q

What two conditions does biblical Christianity affirm for a meaningful life?

A

God and immortality.

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167
Q

How does biblical Christianity provide a framework for living?

A

It supplies a framework within which one can live consistently and happily.

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168
Q

Why should one consider the truth of biblical Christianity?

A

It challenges the worldview of modern man.

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169
Q

Who was Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz?

A

A German philosopher, mathematician, and logician who invented differential and integral calculus independently around the same time as Isaac Newton.

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170
Q

What did Leibniz spend the last five years of his life doing?

A

Defending himself against accusations that he had stolen Newton’s ideas.

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171
Q

What is the first question that Leibniz believed should be asked?

A

Why is there something rather than nothing?

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172
Q

What conclusion did Leibniz reach regarding the existence of the universe?

A

The explanation for why anything exists is found in God.

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173
Q

What are the three premises in Leibniz’s reasoning?

A
  • Everything that exists has an explanation of its existence.
  • If the universe has an explanation of its existence, that explanation is God.
  • The universe exists.
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174
Q

What logical conclusion follows from the premises?

A

The explanation of the universe’s existence is God.

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175
Q

True or False: Leibniz’s argument is considered logically airtight.

A

True.

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176
Q

What must an atheist deny to reject Leibniz’s conclusion?

A

Either premise 1 or premise 2.

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177
Q

Fill in the blank: Leibniz wrote, ‘The first question which should rightly be asked is: Why is there ______ rather than nothing?’

A

something

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178
Q

According to Leibniz, where should we look for the explanation of existence?

A

In God.

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179
Q

What did Leibniz co-discover?

A

Calculus.

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180
Q

Where did the author grow up?

A

Keokuk, Iowa.

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181
Q

What common childhood experience does the author describe?

A

Catching various pets such as frogs, toads, snakes, and birds.

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182
Q

What philosophical question occupied the minds of great philosophers for centuries?

A

Why does anything at all exist?

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183
Q

What is the significance of the phrase ‘In the beginning was the Word’?

A

It suggests a foundational belief in a Creator in relation to the existence of all things.

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184
Q

What is Premise 1?

A

Everything that exists has an explanation of its existence.

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185
Q

What is the initial objection to Premise 1 regarding God?

A

If God exists, then God must have an explanation of His existence, which implies a greater being, which is impossible.

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186
Q

How do believers and atheists differ in their view of existence?

A

Believers say God exists inexplicably; atheists say the universe exists inexplicably.

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187
Q

What are the two kinds of things according to Leibniz?

A
  • Things that exist necessarily
  • Things that are produced by some external cause.
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188
Q

Define ‘things that exist necessarily.’

A

Things that exist by a necessity of their own nature and cannot fail to exist.

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189
Q

What are ‘things that exist contingently’?

A

Things that can fail to exist and need an external cause to explain their existence.

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190
Q

How can Premise 1 be more fully stated?

A

Everything that exists has an explanation of its existence, either in the necessity of its own nature or in an external cause.

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191
Q

What is the explanation of God’s existence according to Leibniz?

A

The necessity of His own nature.

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192
Q

What does the phrase ‘size doesn’t matter’ imply in the context of Premise 1?

A

Increasing the size of an object does not remove the need for an explanation of its existence.

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193
Q

What is the ‘taxicab fallacy’?

A

The error of exempting the universe from the rule that everything has an explanation.

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194
Q

Why is it unscientific to claim the universe has no explanation?

A

Modern cosmology is devoted to the search for an explanation of the universe’s existence.

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195
Q

What is an example of an informal fallacy?

A

The taxicab fallacy.

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196
Q

Define cosmology.

A

The study of the large-scale structure and development of the universe.

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197
Q

What is the assumption in the argument that the universe cannot have an explanation?

A

It assumes that if there were no universe, there would be nothing.

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198
Q

What does Leibniz suggest is the explanation of the universe?

A

A prior state of affairs, which is God and His will.

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199
Q

True or False: Premise 1 is more plausibly true than false.

A

True.

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200
Q

What is the premise regarding the existence of the universe?

A

If the universe has an explanation of its existence, that explanation is God.

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201
Q

What does logical equivalence mean?

A

Two statements are logically equivalent if it is impossible for one to be true and the other false.

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202
Q

What is contraposition in logic?

A

A statement of the form ‘If P, then Q’ is logically equivalent to ‘If not-Q, then not-P.’

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203
Q

What is the typical atheist response to Leibniz’s argument?

A

If atheism is true, the universe has no explanation of its existence.

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204
Q

How is the atheist response to premise 1 related to premise 2?

A

The response implies that if the universe has an explanation, then atheism is not true.

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205
Q

What distinguishes abstract objects from concrete objects?

A

Abstract objects are causally effete or impotent, whereas concrete objects can cause effects in the world.

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206
Q

What are examples of abstract objects identified by philosophers?

A
  • Mathematical entities (numbers, sets, functions) * Propositions * Properties * Fictional characters * Musical and literary works
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207
Q

What must the cause of the universe be if it exists?

A

A nonphysical, immaterial being beyond space and time.

208
Q

What two sorts of things could fit the description of a nonphysical cause for the universe?

A
  • An abstract object * An unembodied mind
209
Q

What does the term ‘ultramundane’ mean?

A

Beyond the realm of our world.

210
Q

What does Leibniz’s argument aim to prove?

A

The existence of a necessary, uncaused, timeless, spaceless, immaterial, personal Creator of the universe.

211
Q

What radical alternative might atheists consider regarding the universe’s existence?

A

The universe exists by a necessity of its own nature.

212
Q

What is the issue with the claim that the universe exists necessarily?

A

None of the things in the universe seems to exist necessarily; they could all fail to exist.

213
Q

What are elementary particles in the context of matter?

A

They are the basic units of matter that cannot be further broken down.

214
Q

Fill in the blank: An analogy is a point of _______ between two things.

A

similarity

215
Q

Fill in the blank: A disanalogy is a point of _______ between two things.

A

difference

216
Q

What does the analogy of a desk illustrate about the universe?

A

A universe made up of different particles would be a different universe.

217
Q

What is the conclusion derived from the argument discussed?

A

God is the explanation of the existence of the universe.

218
Q

What properties does God possess according to the argument?

A
  • Uncaused * Unembodied Mind * Transcends the universe * Exists necessarily
219
Q

What is the first premise of Leibniz’s Cosmological Argument?

A

Everything that exists has an explanation of its existence, either in the necessity of its own nature or in an external cause.

220
Q

What is the counterargument to the first premise regarding God’s existence?

A

God exists by the necessity of His own nature.

221
Q

What principle does the story of finding a ball in the woods illustrate?

A

It illustrates the self-evident principle that everything has an explanation for its existence.

222
Q

What is claimed about the universe in relation to the first premise?

A

The universe is an exception to this principle.

223
Q

What fallacy is committed by making the universe an exception to the principle?

A

The taxicab fallacy.

224
Q

What is argued against the claim that the universe cannot have an explanation?

A

It is impossible for the universe to have an explanation.

225
Q

What assumption does the argument against the universe’s explanation make?

A

It assumes the universe is all there is, which begs the question in favor of atheism.

226
Q

What is the second premise of Leibniz’s Cosmological Argument?

A

If the universe has an explanation of its existence, that explanation is God.

227
Q

What is the atheist’s equivalent statement regarding the universe’s existence?

A

If God does not exist, the universe has no explanation.

228
Q

What is argued about the necessity of the universe’s existence?

A

The universe does not exist necessarily, since different elementary particles could have existed.

229
Q

What qualities must the being that caused space and time possess?

A

This being must be an unembodied, transcendent Mind.

230
Q

What is the conclusion drawn from the statement that the universe exists?

A

Therefore, the universe has an explanation of its existence.

231
Q

What follows from the premises that the universe exists and has an explanation of its existence?

A

Therefore, the explanation of the existence of the universe is God.

232
Q

What is the main question addressed in the text?

A

Why did the universe begin?

This question reflects a longstanding philosophical and theological inquiry.

233
Q

What concept did the author grapple with as a child regarding the universe?

A

The idea of a beginningless universe.

The author found it inconceivable to think of an infinite past.

234
Q

What did ancient Greek philosophers believe about matter?

A

Matter was necessary and uncreated, therefore eternal.

They thought God introduced order into the cosmos but did not create the universe itself.

235
Q

How did Hebrew writers’ views differ from those of ancient Greek philosophers?

A

Hebrew writers held that the universe was created by God at some point in the past.

This is reflected in Genesis 1:1.

236
Q

What was the outcome of the debate in Western philosophy about the universe’s beginning?

A

It lasted over a thousand years and ended inconclusively in the thought of Immanuel Kant.

Kant argued that there are rationally compelling arguments for both sides.

237
Q

Who was Abu Hamid Muhammad Ibn Muhammad Al-Ghazali?

A

A twelfth-century Muslim theologian from Persia.

He was influential in critiquing Greek philosophy’s influence on Islamic thought.

238
Q

What prompted Al-Ghazali to leave Baghdad in 1095?

A

He believed it was impossible to live by the ethics of his religion while supporting corrupt rulers.

He sought a simpler life.

239
Q

What is the title of Al-Ghazali’s critique of the philosophers?

A

The Incoherence of the Philosophers.

This book addresses the denial of God’s creation of the universe by some philosophers.

240
Q

What is Al-Ghazali’s main argument regarding the universe?

A

The universe must have a beginning and therefore a cause.

He argues against the notion of a beginningless universe.

241
Q

Summarize Al-Ghazali’s reasoning in three steps.

A
  1. Whatever begins to exist has a cause.
  2. The universe began to exist.
  3. Therefore, the universe has a cause.
242
Q

True or False: Al-Ghazali believed that the universe is beginningless.

A

False.

He argued that the universe must have a beginning.

243
Q

What must anyone who denies Al-Ghazali’s conclusion do?

A

They must regard either premise 1 or premise 2 as false.

244
Q

What is the significance of the conclusion in Al-Ghazali’s argument?

A

If the premises are true, the conclusion necessarily follows.

This makes his argument logically airtight.

245
Q

What is the first premise of the kalam cosmological argument?

A

Whatever begins to exist has a cause

246
Q

Why is the claim that something can come into being from nothing considered impossible?

A

It would mean coming into being from nothing, which is logically implausible

247
Q

What metaphor is used to illustrate the impossibility of something coming from nothing?

A

A magician pulling a rabbit out of a hat

248
Q

Which famous quote from The Sound of Music supports the idea that nothing comes from nothing?

A

‘Nothing comes from nothing; nothing ever could.’

249
Q

Who were the early proponents of the kalam cosmological argument?

A

Ancient Christian philosophers like John Philoponus of Alexandria

250
Q

How did the kalam cosmological argument evolve across different cultures?

A

It was absorbed by Islam, mediated by Jews, and championed by St. Bonaventura in Christian West

251
Q

What branch of philosophy explores questions about the nature of ultimate reality?

A

Metaphysics

252
Q

What are some prominent issues in metaphysics?

A
  • Nature of existence
  • Nature of time and space
  • Relation of mind and body
  • Reality of abstract objects
  • Existence of God
253
Q

What caution should be taken regarding popular science articles?

A

They often use metaphors that can be misleading and inaccurate

254
Q

What is the distinction made between ‘nothing’ in physics and the philosophical concept of ‘nothing’?

A

‘Nothing’ in physics is not just empty space; it is the absence of anything whatsoever

255
Q

What is the ‘taxicab fallacy’ mentioned in the context of the universe?

A

Dismissing the causal principle for the universe while accepting it for everything else

256
Q

What do skeptics often claim about the first premise of the kalam argument?

A

They argue that it applies to everything except the universe itself

257
Q

What is the common experience regarding premise 1 of the kalam cosmological argument?

A

It is constantly verified and never falsified

258
Q

What is the implication of denying the first premise for atheism according to the author?

A

Atheism is philosophically bankrupt

259
Q

Fill in the blank: The kalam cosmological argument helps to build bridges for sharing one’s faith with _______.

A

[Jews and especially Muslims]

260
Q

True or False: The universe is traditionally considered eternal and uncaused.

A

True

261
Q

What does the author suggest is more plausible, the truth of premise 1 or its falsification?

A

Premise 1 is more plausibly true than false

262
Q

What does the author think about the self-congratulatory attitude of students questioning the premises?

A

It reveals a misunderstanding of the premise

263
Q

What is the conclusion about the kalam cosmological argument’s first premise?

A

It is clearly true and foundational to the argument

264
Q

What is the first premise of the argument regarding the universe?

A

The universe began to exist.

265
Q

What is the controversial aspect of the second premise?

A

The claim that the universe began to exist.

266
Q

What did Ghazali argue about an actually infinite number of things?

A

An actually infinite number of things cannot exist.

267
Q

How does Ghazali differentiate between potential and actual infinity?

A

Potential infinity is an ideal limit never reached, while actual infinity is a complete collection greater than any finite number.

268
Q

What is an example of potential infinity?

A

Dividing a finite distance in half endlessly.

269
Q

What does Ghazali claim about the implications of an actually infinite number of past events?

A

It leads to various absurdities.

270
Q

What is the conclusion drawn from Ghazali’s argument about the universe?

A

The universe cannot be beginningless; it must have begun to exist.

271
Q

What objection is raised regarding Ghazali’s argument?

A

Modern mathematics has shown that actually infinite sets can exist.

272
Q

What is the response to the objection about modern mathematics?

A

Such mathematical entities may not reflect real existence.

273
Q

What analogy does Ghazali use to illustrate the impossibility of an actually infinite number of things?

A

Hilbert’s Hotel.

274
Q

In Hilbert’s Hotel, what happens when a new guest arrives despite all rooms being full?

A

Guests are moved to make a new room available.

275
Q

What occurs when an infinity of new guests arrives at Hilbert’s Hotel?

A

Current guests are moved to even-numbered rooms, freeing all odd-numbered rooms.

276
Q

What paradox arises when guests check out of Hilbert’s Hotel?

A

An infinite number checks out, but the number of guests remains infinite.

277
Q

What logical contradiction is highlighted in the context of Hilbert’s Hotel?

A

Subtracting identical quantities from identical quantities results in nonidentical outcomes.

278
Q

What does Ghazali’s first argument ultimately suggest about the number of past events?

A

The number of past events must be finite.

279
Q

True or False: Ghazali’s argument claims that an actually infinite number of things can exist without contradiction.

A

False.

280
Q

Fill in the blank: Ghazali recognized that a _______ infinite number of things could exist.

A

potentially

281
Q

Who developed the modern theory of infinite sets?

A

Georg Cantor.

282
Q

What mental health condition is suggested to have affected Georg Cantor?

A

Bipolar disorder.

283
Q

What was a significant consequence of Hilbert’s Hotel’s thought experiment?

A

It showcases the absurdity of assuming an actually infinite number of things can exist.

284
Q

What happens if guests in odd-numbered rooms check out in Hilbert’s Hotel?

A

The hotel remains as full as before despite an infinite number of departures.

285
Q

What is the fallacy of composition?

A

The fallacy of confusing a property of a part with a property of the whole

An example is that every part of an elephant may be light, but that doesn’t mean the whole elephant is light.

286
Q

What is Ghazali’s second philosophical argument regarding the universe?

A

You can’t pass through an infinite number of elements one at a time.

287
Q

How does Ghazali illustrate the impossibility of an infinite past?

A

By comparing past events to a series of dominoes falling one after another.

288
Q

What analogy does Ghazali use to explain counting to infinity?

A

No matter how high you count, there’s always an infinity of numbers left to count.

289
Q

Fill in the blank: The series of past events must be ______ and have a beginning.

A

finite

290
Q

What is the main critique of Ghazali’s argument regarding the present and the past?

A

From every past point, we can reach the present.

291
Q

What is the response to the critique that every past event is finitely distant from the present?

A

It commits the fallacy of composition.

292
Q

What absurdity does Ghazali illustrate with the orbits of Jupiter and Saturn?

A

If both have been orbiting from eternity past, they would have completed the same number of orbits, which is absurd.

293
Q

How does Ghazali illustrate the contradiction of someone counting down from infinity?

A

If he has been counting for an infinite amount of time, he should have already finished.

294
Q

What conclusion does Ghazali reach about the series of past events?

A

It can’t be actually infinite; it must have had a beginning.

295
Q

True or False: Ghazali argues that the universe began to exist.

A

True

296
Q

What is the significance of Ghazali’s arguments for the kalam cosmological argument?

A

They provide support for the premise that the universe began to exist.

297
Q

What term is used to describe a universe that contains many other expanding bubbles?

A

Multiverse

The multiverse concept suggests that our observable universe is just one bubble in a larger expanse.

298
Q

What theorem applies to the multiverse as a whole?

A

Borde-Guth-Vilenkin theorem

This theorem indicates that even if a multiverse exists, it cannot be eternal in the past and must have had a beginning.

299
Q

What significant evidence supports the idea of the universe having a beginning?

A

The expansion of the universe

This evidence aligns with the second premise of the kalam cosmological argument.

300
Q

Who independently developed models of an expanding universe in the 1920s?

A

Alexander Friedman and Georges Lemaitre

Their models challenged the static universe assumption held by Einstein.

301
Q

What discovery did Edwin Hubble make in 1929?

A

The redshift in the light from distant galaxies

Hubble found that galaxies are moving away from us, indicating an expanding universe.

302
Q

What analogy is used to illustrate the expansion of the universe?

A

A balloon with buttons glued to its surface

As the balloon expands, the buttons (representing galaxies) move farther apart, illustrating the expansion of space.

303
Q

What does the term ‘Big Bang’ refer to in cosmology?

A

The initial expansion of the universe

The name can be misleading as it suggests an explosion into empty space, which is not the case.

304
Q

What happens to space when tracing the expansion of the universe back in time?

A

The distance between any two points shrinks to zero

This indicates the boundary of space and time, marking the beginning of both.

305
Q

According to Augustine of Hippo, when did God create the universe?

A

Simultaneously with time

Augustine believed that God created both space and time together, which aligns with modern cosmological views.

306
Q

What does the geometric representation of space-time look like?

A

A cone

The cone has a boundary point in the past, indicating that past time is finite and had a beginning.

307
Q

What is the implication of the Borde-Guth-Vilenkin theorem?

A

Any universe that has been expanding cannot be infinite in the past

This theorem confirms that the universe must have a past space-time boundary.

308
Q

What do physicists propose about models that do not have an absolute beginning?

A

They are generally unworkable

Models that avoid the absolute beginning have repeatedly failed to provide a viable explanation.

309
Q

What was the scientific community’s initial reaction to the Big Bang theory?

A

Reluctance to accept the idea of a cosmic genesis

The Big Bang model initially seemed to align with the Judeo-Christian idea of a universe with a beginning.

310
Q

What evidence supports the Big Bang model?

A
  • The redshift of light from distant galaxies
  • The abundance of light elements like helium
  • Cosmic background microwave radiation

These pieces of evidence support the idea that the universe began from a hot, dense state.

311
Q

What does the standard Big Bang model predict?

A

An absolute beginning of the universe

This prediction has been supported over decades of observational astronomy.

312
Q

What is equilibrium?

A

A state in which all forces are in balance and there is no change.

313
Q

In the context of the universe, what does equilibrium refer to?

A

The point at which temperature and pressure are the same everywhere in the universe.

314
Q

What is the second law of thermodynamics?

A

Unless energy is fed into a system, that system will become increasingly disorderly.

315
Q

What happens to gas molecules in a closed vacuum over time according to the second law of thermodynamics?

A

The gas will spread itself evenly throughout the bottle.

316
Q

What is the ‘heat death’ of the universe?

A

A state of equilibrium where the universe becomes a featureless soup with no life possible.

317
Q

Why is the universe not currently in a state of heat death despite existing for an infinite amount of time?

A

Because the universe is still in a state of disequilibrium, where energy is available to be used.

318
Q

Who formulated the second law of thermodynamics?

A

Rudolf Clausius.

319
Q

What are the three fundamental laws of thermodynamics?

A
  • First law: Energy in a physical system can be neither created nor destroyed.
  • Second law: A closed system will tend toward increasing disorder (entropy) until it reaches equilibrium.
  • Third law: As a system approaches absolute zero, its entropy approaches a certain minimum value.
320
Q

What did Ludwig Boltzmann propose regarding the universe’s state?

A

The universe is in a state of overall equilibrium, with isolated pockets of disequilibrium arising by chance.

321
Q

Why was Boltzmann’s many worlds hypothesis rejected by contemporary physicists?

A

It suggests we should observe a smaller region of order, which is vastly more probable than the large, sustained fluctuation needed to create our universe.

322
Q

What happens to the universe if it expands forever?

A

It will never actually arrive at equilibrium; matter and energy will spread out but the universe will become increasingly cold and dark.

323
Q

What occurs if the universe’s expansion slows down and halts?

A

Gravity will pull everything together in a catastrophic big crunch, leading to a black hole.

324
Q

What is the fundamental question regarding the universe’s existence?

A

If the universe has existed for infinite time, why is it not currently in a state of equilibrium?

325
Q

What is the implication of the universe having a finite beginning?

A

Matter and energy were put into the universe as an initial condition, following the second law of thermodynamics since then.

326
Q

What is the thermodynamic property of oscillating models of the universe?

A

Entropy accumulates from cycle to cycle, leading to the conclusion of a first cycle and the origin of the universe.

327
Q

What is the claim made by theorists proposing a multiverse of bubble universes?

A

The second law applies only to the bubbles, not to the whole multiverse.

328
Q

What are ‘baby universes’ in the context of black holes?

A

Theories that black holes could be entrances to wormholes that spawn independent ‘baby universes.’

329
Q

Why is the baby universe scenario considered invalid?

A

The second law of thermodynamics applies, and it contradicts subatomic physics regarding information in black holes.

330
Q

What did Stephen Hawking admit regarding baby universes?

A

He admitted that ‘There is no baby universe branching off.’

331
Q

What does the scientific evidence of thermodynamics confirm?

A

The truth of the second premise of the kalam cosmological argument.

332
Q

What grounds do we have for believing that the universe began to exist?

A

Philosophical and scientific evidence

This conclusion is based on the premise that whatever begins to exist has a cause.

333
Q

According to Daniel Dennett, what is the cause of the universe?

A

The universe itself

Dennett claims that the universe created itself, which is considered logically incoherent.

334
Q

What must the cause of the universe be, according to the text?

A

A transcendent cause beyond the universe

This cause must be uncaused and cannot be an infinite series of causes.

335
Q

What characteristics must the Uncaused First Cause possess?

A
  • Transcends space and time
  • Immaterial and nonphysical
  • Unimaginably powerful
  • A personal being
336
Q

Why does Ghazali argue that the First Cause must be personal?

A

To explain how a timeless cause can produce a temporal effect with a beginning

This addresses the issue of causation in the context of the universe’s creation.

337
Q

True or False: If a cause is present, its effect must also be present.

A

True

This principle relates to the relationship between cause and effect, as illustrated by the example of water freezing.

338
Q

What problem does Ghazali raise regarding the cause of the universe?

A

Why isn’t the universe permanently there as well if its cause is timeless?

339
Q

What solution does Ghazali propose for the problem of the universe’s existence?

A

The cause of the universe is a personal being with freedom of the will

This allows the act of creation to be spontaneous and independent of prior conditions.

340
Q

How does God exist in relation to the universe according to the text?

A

God is changeless and timeless without the universe, and enters into time when He creates the universe.

341
Q

What does the kalam cosmological argument support?

A

The existence of a beginningless, uncaused, timeless, spaceless, changeless, immaterial, enormously powerful Personal Creator of the universe.

342
Q

What was Professor Hick’s reaction after reviewing the author’s dissertation on the cosmological argument?

A

He questioned why theologians are not familiar with the kalam argument.

343
Q

What does the first premise of the Kalam Cosmological Argument state?

A

Whatever begins to exist has a cause

This premise asserts that something cannot come from nothing.

344
Q

What is a common counterargument to the first premise?

A

Physics gives examples of things coming from nothing

This challenges the assertion that everything must have a cause.

345
Q

What does the second premise of the Kalam Cosmological Argument claim?

A

The universe began to exist

This premise argues against the existence of an actually infinite number of past events.

346
Q

What is the significance of mathematics in the Kalam Cosmological Argument?

A

Mathematics establishes only a universe of discourse

It is argued that mathematics does not prove the existence of an actual infinite.

347
Q

True or False: Infinity is well understood in mathematics.

A

True

This statement acknowledges that infinity can be mathematically defined.

348
Q

What does the counterargument suggest about absurd situations related to infinity?

A

Your absurd situations are what we should expect if an actual infinite exists

This implies that the existence of actual infinities leads to contradictions.

349
Q

What fallacy is committed by the argument that a series formed successively can be actually infinite?

A

Fallacy of composition

This fallacy occurs when one assumes that what is true of parts is also true of the whole.

350
Q

What does the expansion of the universe imply in the context of the Kalam Cosmological Argument?

A

It suggests nonstandard models of the origin of the universe exist

These models may also predict a beginning.

351
Q

What is the conclusion of the Kalam Cosmological Argument?

A

Therefore, the universe has a cause

This conclusion follows logically from the first two premises.

352
Q

What is a potential self-defeating claim about the universe having a cause?

A

The universe caused itself

This claim implies that the universe existed before it came to exist.

353
Q

What characteristics are ascribed to the cause of the universe according to the Kalam argument?

A

Uncaused, timeless, spaceless, immaterial, powerful Personal Creator

This description characterizes the nature of the proposed cause.

354
Q

What did ancient Greek philosophers find striking about the universe?

A

The order that pervades the cosmos and the constant revolution of stars and planets

This order was especially awe-inspiring to them.

355
Q

According to Plato, what are the two arguments that lead men to believe in God?

A
  • The argument from the existence of the soul
  • The argument from the order of the motion of the stars and all things under the dominion of the Mind

These arguments were used by Plato to refute atheism.

356
Q

What is the significance of Plato’s Academy?

A

It was a school founded by Plato around 387 BC that flourished for nine hundred years, focusing on the search for truth through rational inquiry

The Academy drew thinkers and students to explore profound questions.

357
Q

Who was Aristotle in relation to Plato’s Academy?

A

An eighteen-year-old pupil who studied there until Plato’s death

Aristotle was significantly influenced by the teachings at the Academy.

358
Q

What did Aristotle conclude about the cause of the universe?

A

Divine intelligence

He believed that the beauty and order of the cosmos indicated a higher power.

359
Q

In Aristotle’s view, what would people living underground conclude upon seeing the sky for the first time?

A

That there exist gods and that the marvelous works are the handiwork of the gods

This reflects Aristotle’s belief in a divine creator based on the observation of the universe.

360
Q

What does Aristotle argue in his Metaphysics?

A

There must be a First Uncaused Cause, which is God

This being is described as living, intelligent, immaterial, eternal, and most good.

361
Q

What does Romans 1:20 suggest about the existence of God?

A

God’s invisible nature and eternal power can be perceived in the things that have been made

This verse supports the idea that design in the universe points to a creator.

362
Q

What recent discoveries have astronomers made regarding the universe’s conditions for life?

A

The universe must have a complex and delicate balance of initial conditions to permit intelligent life

This challenges the previous assumption that life would evolve given enough time and luck.

363
Q

What is meant by the term ‘fine-tuning’ of the universe?

A

The delicate balance of initial conditions necessary for the existence of intelligent life

This concept highlights the complexity and delicacy of the universe.

364
Q

What are the two kinds of fine-tuning?

A

Constants of nature and arbitrary physical quantities

365
Q

What does the equation F = Gm1m2/r2 represent?

A

The force of gravity

366
Q

What is the gravitational constant symbolized by in the equation of gravity?

A

G

367
Q

What are constants in the context of the laws of nature?

A

Unchanging quantities like the force of gravity, electromagnetic force, and weak force

368
Q

True or False: The laws of nature determine the values of constants.

A

False

369
Q

What is an example of an arbitrary physical quantity mentioned?

A

The amount of thermodynamic disorder (entropy) in the early universe

370
Q

What does ‘fine-tuning’ refer to in the context of the universe?

A

The extraordinarily narrow range of values for constants and quantities that allow for life

371
Q

What is the approximate number of seconds in the entire history of the universe?

A

10^17

372
Q

How many subatomic particles are estimated to be in the entire known universe?

A

10^80

373
Q

What does the term ‘fine-tuned’ imply?

A

The range of life-permitting values for constants and quantities is extremely narrow

374
Q

What would happen if the weak force value were altered by one part out of 10^100?

A

It would have prevented a life-permitting universe

375
Q

By how much could the cosmological constant be altered without rendering the universe life-prohibiting?

A

One part in 10^120

376
Q

What are the odds of the low-entropy state of the universe existing by chance alone?

A

One chance out of 10^123

377
Q

What does an accuracy of one part out of 10^60 compare to?

A

Firing a bullet toward a one-inch target twenty billion light-years away

378
Q

What is the significance of fine-tuning in science?

A

It is scientifically well established and unlikely to disappear with the advance of science

379
Q

What does it mean when scientists say a universe is life-permitting?

A

It refers to the property of organisms to take in food, extract energy, grow, adapt, and reproduce.

This definition encompasses all forms of life, not just current ones.

380
Q

What must exist for life, as defined by scientists, to exist?

A

The constants and quantities of the universe must be unbelievably fine-tuned.

Without fine-tuning, matter and chemistry would not exist.

381
Q

True or False: The argument from fine-tuning concerns universes governed by different laws of nature.

A

False

It focuses on universes governed by the same laws of nature but with different values of constants.

382
Q

What does the fly on the wall analogy illustrate?

A

The improbability of a randomly chosen universe being life-permitting.

A solitary fly represents the rare occurrence of a life-permitting universe among many non-permitting ones.

383
Q

What is the three-step argument for the design of the universe?

A
  1. The fine-tuning is due to either physical necessity, chance, or design.
  2. It is not due to physical necessity or chance.
  3. Therefore, it is due to design.
384
Q

What are the three possible explanations for the fine-tuning of the universe?

A
  • Physical necessity
  • Chance
  • Design

Each of these explanations considers different origins for the constants and quantities.

385
Q

What is the first premise of the argument regarding fine-tuning?

A

The fine-tuning of the universe is due to either physical necessity, chance, or design.

386
Q

What does the second premise state about fine-tuning?

A

The fine-tuning is not due to physical necessity or chance.

387
Q

How does the argument from fine-tuning relate to biological evolution?

A

It shows that the evolution of intelligent life depends on the design of the initial cosmic conditions, circumventing the issue of biological evolution.

This highlights the improbability of explaining complex life without a Designer.

388
Q

Fill in the blank: The constants and quantities must have the values they do due to _______.

A

[physical necessity]

389
Q

Fill in the blank: The constants and quantities have the values they do simply by _______.

A

[chance]

390
Q

Fill in the blank: The constants and quantities were _______ to have the values they do.

A

[designed]

391
Q

What is the first alternative regarding the universe’s necessity?

A

The universe has to be life-permitting; life-prohibiting universes are physically impossible.

This view suggests that the constants and quantities must have specific values to allow for life.

392
Q

What is the primary objection to the concept of physical necessity?

A

It seems implausible to claim that a life-prohibiting universe is a physical impossibility.

Critics argue that constants are not determined by the laws of nature and could theoretically be different.

393
Q

What does the term ‘theory of everything’ (TOE) refer to?

A

A theory that aims to unify the four basic forces of nature into a single force.

It includes gravity, the weak force, the strong force, and electromagnetism.

394
Q

What is the limitation of M-theory in relation to the universe?

A

M-theory requires eleven dimensions but does not explain why this specific number exists.

Additionally, M-theory does not uniquely predict a life-permitting universe.

395
Q

What is the ‘cosmic landscape’ in the context of M-theory?

A

A range of possible universes consistent with M-theory, not a list of actual existing universes.

It describes the various configurations that are theoretically possible.

396
Q

Is there evidence that a life-permitting universe is physically necessary?

A

No, evidence indicates that life-prohibiting universes are more likely than life-permitting ones.

This undermines the argument for design based on physical necessity.

397
Q

What does the second alternative suggest about fine-tuning?

A

The fine-tuning could be due to chance, suggesting it is an accident that constants are life-permitting.

This perspective implies that we simply got lucky.

398
Q

What is the fundamental problem with the chance alternative?

A

The improbability of a life-permitting universe existing by mere chance is so remote that it becomes unreasonable.

This highlights the difficulty of accepting chance as a sufficient explanation.

399
Q

How does John Barrow illustrate the improbability of a life-permitting universe?

A

By representing our universe as a red dot on paper amidst a sea of blue dots (life-prohibiting universes).

This visual metaphor shows that life-prohibiting universes vastly outnumber life-permitting ones.

400
Q

Fill in the blank: The constants and quantities must have values for a _______ universe to exist.

A

life-permitting

401
Q

True or False: M-theory guarantees that a life-permitting universe will exist.

A

False

M-theory allows for many possible universes, most of which are life-prohibiting.

402
Q

What happens when you alter the finely tuned constants in Barrow’s illustration?

A

You create new universes represented as dots, showing a predominance of life-prohibiting universes.

This illustrates the improbability of finding life-permitting universes among the possibilities.

403
Q

What is the lottery analogy used to illustrate?

A

The analogy illustrates the misunderstanding of the argument for design versus chance.

The analogy compares the improbability of winning a lottery to the existence of a life-permitting universe.

404
Q

What is the primary argument for design?

A

The argument for design seeks to explain why a life-permitting universe exists.

This contrasts with the misconception that it explains why a particular universe exists.

405
Q

In the corrected lottery analogy, what is the key difference from the original?

A

The corrected analogy involves billions of white ping-pong balls and one black ping-pong ball, focusing on the odds of selecting a life-permitting ball.

The focus is on the improbability of selecting the black ball, which represents a life-permitting universe.

406
Q

What conclusion can be drawn if the black ball is selected in the corrected analogy?

A

It would suggest that the lottery was rigged to allow for a life-permitting outcome.

This highlights the improbability of obtaining a life-permitting universe when overwhelmingly more outcomes are life-prohibiting.

407
Q

What does the Anthropic Principle state?

A

The Anthropic Principle states that we can observe only those values of fundamental constants that are compatible with our existence.

This principle is used to argue that no explanation is needed for a life-permitting universe.

408
Q

Why is the reasoning behind the Anthropic Principle considered fallacious?

A

It fails to address the need for an explanation of why a life-permitting universe exists despite the fact that we can only observe such a universe.

Just because we exist in a life-permitting universe does not eliminate the improbability of its existence.

409
Q

What hypothetical scenario is used to illustrate the improbability of surviving a firing squad?

A

The scenario involves being shot at by a hundred marksmen at point-blank range and surviving.

This analogy emphasizes the improbability of surviving and the need for an explanation.

410
Q

What should one conclude if they observe they are alive after a firing squad has shot at them?

A

One should conclude that the marksmen must have missed on purpose or that the situation was engineered.

This conclusion parallels the need to explain the existence of a life-permitting universe.

411
Q

Fill in the blank: The odds against any particular ball being selected in the corrected lottery analogy are _______.

A

fantastically improbable.

412
Q

True or False: The argument for design is trying to explain why a specific universe exists.

A

False.

413
Q

What is the implication of getting the black ball multiple times in a row in the context of the lottery analogy?

A

It suggests that the outcome is not due to chance but rather manipulation.

This reinforces the idea that a life-permitting universe should raise questions about its existence.

414
Q

What does the Anthropic Principle fail to eliminate without the many worlds hypothesis?

A

The need for an explanation of fine-tuning

The Anthropic Principle suggests that the universe’s parameters must allow for the existence of observers, but does not explain why those parameters are set as they are.

415
Q

According to the many worlds hypothesis, what is our universe considered to be?

A

One member of a world ensemble or ‘multiverse’

The many worlds hypothesis posits an infinite number of universes with varying fundamental constants.

416
Q

What is a possible response to the many worlds hypothesis regarding the multiverse?

A

The multiverse itself may involve fine-tuning

If the mechanism generating many worlds is itself fine-tuned, it raises the same fine-tuning problem it seeks to resolve.

417
Q

What must a plausible mechanism for generating many worlds avoid to attribute fine-tuning to chance?

A

It must not be fine-tuned itself

If the mechanism is fine-tuned, it creates a new fine-tuning problem.

418
Q

What does the vagueness of proposed mechanisms for the multiverse suggest?

A

It is unclear whether the physics of the multiverse involves fine-tuning

For example, the existence of eleven dimensions in M-theory remains unexplained.

419
Q

What do proponents of the many worlds hypothesis need to believe?

A

There is an infinite number of unobservable universes

This belief is required to explain the existence of a life-permitting universe like ours by chance.

420
Q

How does the many worlds hypothesis serve as a compliment to the design hypothesis?

A

It reflects the reluctance to accept design due to its speculative nature

Scientists may prefer the many worlds hypothesis over design, suggesting a compulsion to avoid admitting design.

421
Q

What theorem challenges the existence of a world ensemble in the many worlds hypothesis?

A

The Borde-Guth-Vilenkin theorem

This theorem indicates that even a multiverse must have a beginning, implying a finite number of universes.

422
Q

What is a significant objection raised against the many worlds hypothesis related to probability?

A

The odds of observing a finely tuned universe are vastly lower than observing a smaller region of order

Roger Penrose highlighted that the probability of our universe’s initial conditions existing by chance is astronomically low.

423
Q

What phenomenon illustrates the problem with assuming our universe is just one of many?

A

The invasion of Boltzmann brains

This concept suggests that a random fluctuation could create a single brain with illusory perceptions of a larger universe.

424
Q

What is the implication of believing in the many worlds hypothesis concerning our existence?

A

One would have to believe they are the only existence, with everything else being an illusion

This leads to a rational challenge against the many worlds hypothesis.

425
Q

What is suggested as a rationally acceptable condition for the many worlds hypothesis?

A

That God created and ordered the multiverse

This would imply that the worlds within the multiverse are not randomly ordered.

426
Q

What happens to the argument for chance as an explanation for fine-tuning with the failure of the many worlds hypothesis?

A

It collapses

The inability of both physical necessity and chance to explain fine-tuning strengthens the case for design.

427
Q

What is the central argument of Richard Dawkins’ book The God Delusion?

A
  1. Explanation of complex design in the universe is a challenge.
  2. The temptation to attribute design to an actual designer exists.
  3. This leads to the problem of who designed the designer.
  4. Darwinian evolution by natural selection is the best explanation.
  5. No equivalent explanation exists for physics.
  6. We should hope for a powerful explanation in physics.
428
Q

What conclusion does Dawkins reach regarding the existence of God?

A

God almost certainly does not exist.

429
Q

What logical issue is identified with Dawkins’ conclusion?

A

The conclusion does not logically follow from the previous statements.

430
Q

What is a possible basis for belief in God, according to the text?

A
  1. Cosmological argument.
  2. Moral argument.
  3. Religious experience.
  4. Divine revelation.
431
Q

What is naturalism?

A

The belief that only natural explanations should be considered.

432
Q

Why does naturalism rule out the designer hypothesis?

A

Because a designer is defined as supernatural.

433
Q

What is the first problem with Dawkins’ Step 3 regarding explanations?

A

You don’t need to explain the explanation to recognize it as the best.

434
Q

What analogy is used to illustrate the first problem with Step 3?

A

Archaeologists discovering artifacts and inferring they are not chance results.

435
Q

What is the second problem with Dawkins’ Step 3?

A

Dawkins assumes the divine Designer is as complex as the universe.

436
Q

What factors do scientists consider besides simplicity when assessing explanations?

A
  1. Explanatory power.
  2. Explanatory scope.
437
Q

How is God characterized in terms of complexity?

A

God is a remarkably simple entity.

438
Q

What does Dawkins confuse in his argument about God’s complexity?

A

A mind’s ideas with the simplicity of the mind itself.

439
Q

What is the significance of the divine mind in terms of simplicity?

A

Postulating a divine mind represents an advance in simplicity.

440
Q

Who previously held the title for the worst atheistic argument in Western thought?

A

Stephen Hawking.

441
Q

Who is suggested to have taken the title for the worst atheistic argument after Hawking?

A

Richard Dawkins.

442
Q

Fill in the blank: Dawkins’ lack of _______ is plainly on display in his argument.

A

philosophical depth

443
Q

True or False: Dawkins provides a comprehensive explanation for cosmic fine-tuning.

A

False

444
Q

What does the hope expressed in Dawkins’ Step 6 represent?

A

The faith of a naturalist.

445
Q

Can we be good without God?

A

The question explores the nature of moral values and whether they are objective or subjective.

446
Q

What are the four proposed bases of our values?

A
  • Social convention
  • Personal preference
  • Evolution
  • God
447
Q

Who was William Sorley?

A

A professor of moral philosophy at Cambridge University who argued that morality supports the existence of God.

448
Q

What is Sorley’s view on objective moral order?

A

He argues that it is as real and independent as the natural order.

449
Q

What analogy does Sorley use to compare moral and natural orders?

A

Both are assumed to exist based on our experiences.

450
Q

What is the moral argument for God’s existence?

A
  • If God does not exist, objective moral values and duties do not exist.
  • Objective moral values and duties do exist.
  • Therefore, God exists.
451
Q

What do students often believe about objective moral values?

A

They insist that objective moral values do exist.

452
Q

What is the first premise of the moral argument?

A

If God does not exist, objective moral values and duties do not exist.

453
Q

What is the distinction between values and duties?

A
  • Values: whether something is good or bad
  • Duties: whether something is right or wrong
454
Q

What does moral value refer to?

A

The worth of a person or action, whether it is good or bad.

455
Q

What does moral duty refer to?

A

Our obligation to act in a certain way, whether that action is right or wrong.

456
Q

What is the difference between objective and subjective moral values?

A
  • Objective: independent of people’s opinions
  • Subjective: dependent on people’s opinions
457
Q

What example illustrates objective moral values?

A

The Holocaust was objectively wrong, regardless of the beliefs of the Nazis.

458
Q

What does it mean for moral values to be objective?

A

It means they are good or bad regardless of people’s opinions.

459
Q

What is the implication of subjective moral values?

A

They depend on individual or cultural opinions.

460
Q

True or False: The argument for God’s existence based on morality is complex and widely accepted.

A

False: It is simple and many people believe both premises.

461
Q

What is a common reaction of students when discussing objective moral values?

A

They may struggle to reconcile their beliefs with the implications of relativism.

462
Q

What is the traditional basis for moral values?

A

God, who is the highest Good.

This view posits that moral values are grounded in a divine authority.

463
Q

What is the most popular form of atheism discussed?

A

Naturalism.

Naturalism asserts that only things described by our best scientific theories exist.

464
Q

Why does the text argue that moral values don’t exist under naturalism?

A

Because science is morally neutral and moral values cannot be found in a test tube.

This implies that moral values are illusions created by human beings.

465
Q

What are moral values considered to be on a naturalistic view?

A

By-products of biological evolution and social conditioning.

This view suggests that behaviors are shaped by survival advantages.

466
Q

What does the concept of ‘herd morality’ refer to?

A

A morality that functions well in the perpetuation of our species.

This term implies a collective moral understanding among species.

467
Q

What does the term ‘speciesism’ mean?

A

A prejudice or attitude of bias in favor of one’s own species.

Coined by Richard D. Ryder, it highlights bias against other species.

468
Q

What conclusion does the text draw about human beings without God?

A

They are just apelike creatures with delusions of moral grandeur.

This suggests a diminished view of human moral significance without a divine basis.

469
Q

What traditionally provides the basis for moral duties?

A

God’s commandments, such as the Ten Commandments.

These commandments are seen as the source of objective moral duties.

470
Q

Why does the text question the existence of moral obligations in an atheistic view?

A

Because human beings are viewed as just animals with no moral obligations.

This perspective challenges the idea of inherent moral duties.

471
Q

What example is given to illustrate the lack of moral dimension in animal behavior?

A

A lion killing a zebra and a shark copulating with a female.

These actions are described as natural occurrences without moral implications.

472
Q

What is said about actions like incest and rape in the context of societal norms?

A

They may become taboo due to social and biological factors, but this does not prove they are truly wrong.

This raises questions about the objective nature of moral laws.

473
Q

What happens if there is no moral lawgiver, according to the text?

A

There is no objective moral law that we must obey.

This conclusion emphasizes the need for a divine source of morality.

474
Q

Fill in the blank: If God does not exist, moral values are just _______.

A

illusions of human beings.

475
Q

True or False: Under naturalism, moral values are considered to be objectively true.

A

False.

476
Q

What is the main misunderstanding of the moral argument when shared with unbelievers?

A

That it implies all atheists are bad people.

This misunderstanding leads to perceptions of judgmentalism and intolerance.

477
Q

What does the moral argument assert regarding the necessity of belief in God?

A

Belief in God is not necessary for objective morality; God’s existence is necessary.

This clarifies that morality can exist independently of belief.

478
Q

What is the key question of the moral argument?

A

If God does not exist, do objective moral values and duties exist?

479
Q

What was the topic of the debate with Paul Kurtz?

A

Goodness without God Is Good Enough.

480
Q

What was Paul Kurtz’s main argument against the necessity of God for morality?

A

He argued that many nonbelievers live moral lives, suggesting God is not essential.

This argument does not address the claim that morality is an illusion without God.

481
Q

What is the Euthyphro dilemma?

A

Is something good because God wills it, or does God will something because it is good?

482
Q

What happens if we say something is good because God wills it?

A

It becomes arbitrary; God could will anything as good.

483
Q

What is the implication if we say God wills something because it is good?

A

Moral values exist independently of God.

484
Q

What is the third alternative to the Euthyphro dilemma?

A

God wills something because He is good.

485
Q

How does God’s nature relate to moral values?

A

God’s nature is the standard of goodness, and His commandments express that nature.

486
Q

What does the solution to the Euthyphro dilemma imply about moral standards?

A

Moral values are not independent of God; they are defined by God’s character.

487
Q

What logical impossibility does the question about God commanding child abuse illustrate?

A

It illustrates a false premise, similar to asking about a square circle.

488
Q

Fill in the blank: The morally good/bad is determined by _______.

A

God’s nature.

489
Q

Fill in the blank: The morally right/wrong is determined by _______.

A

God’s will.

490
Q

What does atheistic moral platonism claim about moral values?

A

Atheistic moral platonism holds that objective moral values exist but are not grounded in God.

491
Q

What is the Euthyphro dilemma often associated with?

A

The Euthyphro dilemma questions whether moral values are arbitrary if grounded in God.

492
Q

Who are some philosophers that defend the view of moral values and duties?

A
  • Robert Adams
  • William Alston
  • Philip Quinn
493
Q

What is a key criticism of atheistic moral platonism?

A

It is unintelligible to say that moral values like justice exist without any foundation.

494
Q

What moral duties does atheistic moral platonism fail to explain?

A

It provides no basis for why individuals have moral obligations to act in certain ways.

495
Q

What is one reason given against the plausibility of atheistic moral platonism?

A

It’s improbable that an evolutionary process would produce creatures corresponding to abstract moral values.

496
Q

What does humanism assert about moral values?

A

Humanism states that man is the measure of all things and that moral duties promote human flourishing.

497
Q

What is a major criticism of humanism as a moral framework?

A

Its arbitrariness in deciding why human flourishing is more valuable than the flourishing of other species.

498
Q

What do some atheists claim about moral properties and natural states of affairs?

A

They claim that moral properties like goodness and badness attach necessarily to certain natural states.

499
Q

Why is it considered implausible that moral properties exist in an atheistic worldview?

A

There is no clear reason to believe that moral properties would attach to natural states without a moral framework.

500
Q

What does the author suggest is a natural stopping point for objective moral values?

A

God is presented as the natural stopping point for objective moral values and duties.

501
Q

What distinguishes theism from humanism in the context of moral values?

A

Theism is not characterized by arbitrariness and implausibility, as it grounds moral values in God.

502
Q

Fill in the blank: Atheistic moral platonism lacks a _______ for moral obligation.

A

moral lawgiver

503
Q

True or False: Atheistic moral platonism argues that moral values are dependent on human beings.

A

False

504
Q

What is the second premise of the moral argument?

A

Objective moral values and duties exist.

This premise is foundational to the argument for the existence of God.

505
Q

Who is more likely to believe in objective moral values according to surveys?

A

Professors, particularly philosophy professors, are more apt to believe in objective moral values than students.

This suggests a correlation between educational level and belief in objective morality.

506
Q

What do philosophers say about moral experience compared to sensory experience?

A

Philosophers see no more reason to distrust moral experience than sensory experience.

This implies that moral experiences can be trusted to reveal objective values.

507
Q

What are examples of actions widely recognized as morally wrong?

A
  • Sexual abuse
  • Rape
  • Torture
  • Child abuse

Such actions are viewed as moral abominations.

508
Q

What is the effect of presenting moral atrocities on belief in objective moral values?

A

Presenting moral atrocities often convinces people that objective moral values do exist.

Examples include practices like suttee and historical events like the Crusades.

509
Q

What fallacy does the sociobiological account commit regarding moral beliefs?

A

The genetic fallacy.

This fallacy invalidates a belief based on how it was formed rather than its truth.

510
Q

What does the sociobiological account suggest about the origins of moral beliefs?

A

Moral beliefs are shaped by evolution and social conditioning.

This raises questions about the truth and justification of those beliefs.

511
Q

What is one major problem with the objection to moral experience based on sociobiology?

A

It assumes atheism is true, which undermines the objectivity of moral beliefs.

If God exists, He may guide the evolution of our moral beliefs.

512
Q

What does Romans 2:14-15 suggest about moral knowledge?

A

Even Gentiles know God’s law instinctively, as it is written in their hearts.

This indicates an inherent understanding of morality in humans.

513
Q

What conclusion can be drawn from the premises of the moral argument?

A

God exists.

This conclusion complements other arguments for God’s existence, such as cosmological and design arguments.

514
Q

Why is the moral argument considered effective?

A

It addresses daily questions of morality that people face in their lives.

This makes the moral argument relevant and impactful.

515
Q

Fill in the blank: According to the argument, we cannot truly be good without _______.

A

God.

This statement emphasizes the connection between morality and the divine.

Worldview (6 decks)

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