On Guard Flashcards
What does the term ‘apologetics’ mean?
Apologetics comes from the Greek word apologia, which means a defense, as in a court of law.
What is the primary focus of Christian apologetics?
Making a case for the truth of the Christian faith.
According to 1 Peter 3:15, how should we present our defense?
With gentleness and respect.
True or False: Apologetics is the same as apologizing for being a Christian.
False.
What is the attitude we should have when giving our defense of faith?
Gentle and respectful.
What should we avoid when discussing our faith with non-believers?
Quarreling and becoming argumentative.
Fill in the blank: An argument in the philosophical sense is just a series of statements leading to a _______.
conclusion.
How does having good arguments affect our demeanor during discussions?
It makes us less apt to become quarrelsome or upset.
What should be a common Christian reaction when faced with personal attacks during debates?
Feeling compassion for the unbeliever.
What biblical principle is highlighted in good apologetics?
Speaking the truth in love (Eph. 4:15).
What is the command given in 1 Peter 3:15 regarding our beliefs?
Always be prepared to make a defense to anyone who asks you for a reason for the hope that is in you.
True or False: Good apologetics involves making someone feel sorry for their beliefs.
False.
Why is it important to have good reasons for what you believe?
It helps you remain calm and confident when under attack.
What is the primary goal of Christian apologetics?
To defend the truth of the Christian faith.
Fill in the blank: Apologetics is not about making others _______ for your faith.
sorry.
What is the primary purpose of apologetics according to the text?
To provide evidence for the truth of Christianity and to shape culture.
How did Jesus use evidence to support His claims?
He appealed to miracles and fulfilled prophecy.
What specific arguments did Peter use in his sermon on Pentecost?
He appealed to Jesus’ miracles, fulfilled prophecy, and Christ’s resurrection.
What approach did the apostles take when addressing non-Jews?
They sought to show the existence of God through His handiwork in nature.
According to Romans 1:20, what can all men know from nature?
That God exists.
In 1 Corinthians 15:3-8, what evidence does Paul use to support Christianity?
Eyewitness testimony of Jesus’ resurrection.
True or False: The apostles relied solely on the Holy Spirit without providing evidence for their claims.
False.
List three reasons why apologetics is important for Christians today.
- Shaping culture
- Providing evidence for faith
- Countering secularism
What metaphor is used to describe the struggle for the soul of America?
Culture war.
Who are the so-called ‘New Atheists’ mentioned in the text?
- Sam Harris
- Richard Dawkins
- Christopher Hitchens
Fill in the blank: The perception of Christians in American society is often that they are _______.
[goofy curiosities].
Why is the cultural backdrop significant when sharing the gospel?
Because the gospel is always heard against the backdrop of the culture.
What impact does secularism have on the perception of Christianity?
It leads to Christianity being dismissed as mere superstition.
How did the author describe the reception of Christianity in Western Europe?
It’s hard for the gospel to get a fair hearing.
What was a student’s reaction when the author spoke at a university in Sweden?
The student asked, ‘What are you doing here?’ indicating surprise at a Christian philosopher.
What is the goal of training Christians in apologetics?
To provide solid evidence for beliefs and good answers to objections.
True or False: Arguments and evidence alone will cause people to become Christians.
False.
What environment do arguments and evidence help create for the gospel?
An environment in which Christian belief is seen as reasonable.
Fill in the blank: Secularism is a worldview that allows no room for the _______.
[supernatural].
What is relativism?
The view that something is relative rather than absolute.
Give an example of relativism.
Being rich is relative; one may be rich compared to some cultures but not others.
True or False: Relativism suggests that moral principles are absolute truths.
False.
What are the benefits of apologetics in one’s personal Christian life?
Three benefits: increased confidence in sharing faith, helps maintain faith during doubt, and promotes deeper understanding of beliefs.
How does knowing why you believe impact sharing your faith?
It makes you more confident in sharing your faith with others.
What percentage of Christian high school students reportedly quit church involvement after graduation?
Forty percent.
Fill in the blank: Apologetics can help you to keep the faith in times of _______.
doubt.
What is a common reason for students abandoning their faith?
Lack of answers to questions about their faith.
What does the author believe the church is failing to provide for youth?
Training in the defense of Christianity’s truth.
Why do many students become ‘sitting ducks’ for non-Christian philosophies?
Because they lack preparation and training in apologetics.
What can training in apologetics help parents do?
Explain to their children why they believe as they do.
True or False: Apologetics guarantees that one will keep their faith.
False.
What impact can reading an apologetics book have on someone struggling with faith?
It can help bring them back from the brink of abandoning their faith.
What deeper questions does studying apologetics lead to?
Questions about the existence and nature of God, the origin of the universe, and moral values.
Fill in the blank: Studying apologetics helps you become a deeper and more _______ person.
interesting.
How does studying apologetics affect one’s ability to articulate beliefs?
It enables one to provide reasons for their beliefs rather than just personal opinions.
What is a significant cultural issue mentioned in relation to American society?
Superficiality and fixation on celebrities and entertainment.
What transformation can occur by wrestling with deep questions in apologetics?
You will become more thoughtful and well-rounded.
What is a common belief about the role of apologetics in winning unbelievers to Christ?
Many people believe that apologetics is ineffective in winning unbelievers to Christ.
What should we expect regarding the response of unbelievers to apologetic arguments?
We should expect that most unbelievers will remain unconvinced by our apologetic arguments.
Why might some people be disappointed with the effectiveness of apologetics?
They may have false expectations about the number of people who will respond positively to the gospel.
What is the cumulative effect of apologetic arguments on unbelievers?
The cumulative effect is unknown, as arguments may plant seeds that grow over time.
Why should Christians bother with the minority of unbelievers who respond to apologetics?
Every person is precious to God and has the potential for significant influence.
Which professions tend to resonate most with apologetic arguments?
Engineers, people in medicine, and lawyers.
True or False: The general conclusion that apologetics is ineffective in evangelism is accurate.
False.
Who is Lee Strobel, and what has he experienced regarding apologetics?
Lee Strobel has noted numerous people coming to Christ through his books.
What has been the author’s experience after giving talks on apologetics?
Many students have indicated decisions for Christ after such presentations.
Fill in the blank: The impact of one person’s conversion, such as ________, continues to be significant.
C. S. Lewis
What significant change occurred in the life of Sayd al-Islam from Oman?
He lost his Muslim faith, became an atheist, and then came to believe in God through apologetic works.
What is the significance of C. S. Lewis in the context of Christian apologetics?
He became one of the most influential Christian apologists of his generation.
What is a key factor in effectively presenting apologetics to bring people to Christ?
Combining apologetics with a gospel presentation and personal testimony.
How many copies of C. S. Lewis’s books have been sold worldwide?
More than one hundred million copies.
What did the man from Oman express about his situation regarding his faith?
He must lead a double life due to the risk of being killed for his beliefs.
What is reductio ad absurdum?
A form of argument that proves a statement by demonstrating that its opposite is absurd.
What does ‘meaning’ refer to in this context?
Significance, why something matters.
What does ‘value’ pertain to?
Good and evil, right and wrong.
What is ‘purpose’ related to?
A goal, a reason for something.
What is the difference between objective and subjective?
Objective is real or true independent of opinion; subjective is a matter of personal opinion.
Provide an example of an objective fact.
Water is H2O.
Provide an example of a subjective statement.
Vanilla tastes better than chocolate.
True or False: ‘Objective’ is like a subject or a person.
False.
What historical events were occurring when the author was speaking on university campuses in Europe?
The collapse of the Soviet Union and the fall of the Iron Curtain.
What did Andrei Grib mean by ‘proof by the opposite’?
You can prove something to be true by showing its opposite is false.
What was the implication of Marxist atheism in Russia according to Grib?
It didn’t work, leading people to believe the opposite must be true.
Why do some people think God is irrelevant?
They take God for granted and do not consider the implications of His non-existence.
What do Sartre and Camus argue about life without God?
They argue that life is absurd if God does not exist.
What are the implications of atheism regarding meaning, value, and purpose?
They are ultimately human illusions; life is objectively meaningless, valueless, and purposeless.
Fill in the blank: If atheism is true, then life is really _______.
objectively meaningless.
What does the author claim about atheists’ experience of life?
They may not experience life as dull and meaningless, but their beliefs are subjective illusions.
What does the author mean by ‘ultimate meaning’?
Meaning that is not merely a human illusion but has a foundation in existence.
What is the central question related to the existence of God according to the text?
Whether God exists is the most important question a person can ask.
What is the consequence of the belief that God does not exist?
Both man and the universe are inevitably doomed to death
This leads to a life that is ultimately meaningless.
What does Paul Tillich refer to as ‘the threat of nonbeing’?
The awareness that one will cease to exist and die
This thought can be overwhelming and threatening.
How does Sartre view the passage of time in relation to existence?
Several hours or several years make no difference once you have lost eternity.
What will eventually happen to the universe according to scientists?
The universe will expand, grow colder, and all matter will collapse into dead stars and black holes.
What is the ultimate fate of human civilization if God does not exist?
It is doomed to destruction, with no hope for escape.
What does the absence of God imply about the meaning of life?
Life itself becomes absurd and without ultimate significance, value, or purpose.
Fill in the blank: If each individual person passes out of existence when he dies, then what ultimate meaning can be given to his life? Does it really matter in the end whether he ever existed at all? Sure, his life may be important relative to certain other events, but what’s the ultimate significance of any of those events? If everything is doomed to destruction, then what does it matter that you _______ anything?
influenced
According to the text, what is the horror of modern man?
Because he ends in nothing, he is nothing.
What does mere duration of existence fail to provide for life to be meaningful?
It does not provide ultimate significance.
What does the astronaut in the science-fiction story realize about immortality?
He realizes that mere existence without purpose is a curse.
What is the implication of life ending at the grave regarding moral behavior?
It makes no ultimate difference whether you live as a Stalin or as a Mother Teresa.
True or False: If there is no God, then there is an objective standard of right and wrong.
False
What does Richard Dawkins suggest about human worth from an atheistic perspective?
There is no design, no purpose, no evil, no good, only indifference.
What happens to moral values in a world without God?
They become subjective and culturally relative.
Fill in the blank: If death stands with open arms at the end of life’s trail, then what is the _______ of life?
goal
What is the ultimate fate of mankind in a universe without God?
We are here to no purpose.
According to Ecclesiastes, what is the fate of humans compared to beasts?
They have the same fate; all go to the same place.
What does the ancient writer of Ecclesiastes conclude about life?
‘Vanity of vanities! All is vanity.’
What does the absence of God imply about the universe and human existence?
They exist to no purpose since they are products of chance.
What does the phrase ‘if God is dead, then man is dead too’ imply?
Without God, there is despair.
What does Nietzsche’s madman seek in the marketplace?
God
What is the reaction of the crowd to the madman’s declaration?
They laughed and taunted him
What does the madman accuse the crowd of doing?
Killing God
What metaphor does Nietzsche use to describe humanity’s actions regarding God?
Drinking up the sea and wiping away the entire horizon
What does the madman question about the direction of existence after the death of God?
Are we not straying as through an infinite nothing?
What does the madman imply about the state of the world after God’s death?
It has become colder and is filled with night
What does the madman say is necessary in the morning after God’s death?
Lanterns must be lit
What profound realization does Nietzsche predict will come to modern man?
The implications of atheism
What age does Nietzsche predict will be ushered in by the realization of atheism?
An age of nihilism
Fill in the blank: Most people do not reflect on the consequences of _______.
atheism
What pressing question does Nietzsche’s madman pose to humanity?
How shall we, the murderers of all murderers, comfort ourselves?
True or False: The madman believes that the death of God has already been fully realized by society.
False
What does Nietzsche suggest has not yet reached the ears of man?
The tremendous event of God’s death
What does the madman do at the end of his declaration?
Dashes his lantern to the ground
What does Nietzsche imply about the future understanding of atheism’s consequences?
It will lead to a deeper understanding of meaning and value in life
What is the fundamental problem with living consistently and happily within an atheistic worldview?
It is impossible to live consistently and happily; if you live consistently, you will not be happy; if you live happily, it is only because you are not consistent.
Who described modern man as residing in a two-story universe?
Francis Schaeffer
What does the lower story in Schaeffer’s two-story universe represent?
The finite world without God, where life is absurd.
What does the upper story in Schaeffer’s two-story universe represent?
Meaning, value, and purpose.
According to Albert Camus, what is the only serious philosophical question?
Suicide
What does Camus argue despite life’s absurdity?
He argues against suicide and for promoting human brotherhood.
What is the criticism against Camus regarding his views on life and ethics?
He inconsistently holds both to the absurdity of life and the ethics of human love and brotherhood.
What is the logical inconsistency in claiming there are no values while affirming values of love and brotherhood?
The view that there are no values is incompatible with affirming the values of love and brotherhood.
What did Bertrand Russell admit about ethical values?
He could not live as though ethical values were simply a matter of personal taste.
What did Dostoyevsky say about moral permissibility in a world without God?
All things are permitted.
What significant event did the author reference to illustrate the horror of a world devoid of value?
The Holocaust
What did Nietzsche proclaim regarding good and evil?
The necessity of living beyond good and evil.
What is the contradiction in the views of Richard Dawkins regarding morality?
He condemns actions as immoral while asserting there is no good or evil.
How do most people who deny purpose in life often live happily?
By making up some purpose or by not carrying their view to its logical conclusions.
Fill in the blank: The outspoken atheist Steven Weinberg described human life as a more-or-less ______ outcome of a chain of accidents.
farcical
What does Weinberg find hard to realize about the universe?
That it is just a tiny part of an overwhelmingly hostile universe.
What does the term ‘tragedy’ express in Weinberg’s description of the human predicament?
An evaluation of a situation.
According to atheism, what significance do human pursuits have?
None; they have no objective significance.
What is the dilemma of modern man according to the text?
The atheistic worldview is insufficient to maintain a happy and consistent life.
What happens if we try to live consistently within the atheistic worldview?
We shall find ourselves profoundly unhappy.
What does Dr. L. D. Rue advocate as a means of escape from the modern man’s predicament?
We deceive ourselves by means of some ‘Noble Lie’ into thinking that we and the universe still have value.
According to Rue, what has been the lesson of the past two centuries?
Intellectual and moral relativism is profoundly the case.
What are the two options presented by Rue for coping with modern man’s predicament?
The madhouse option and the totalitarian option.
What is the ‘Noble Lie’ as defined in the text?
A lie that deceives us, tricks us, and compels us beyond self-interest.
What must modern man embrace in order to survive, according to the text?
Self-deception.
How does biblical Christianity challenge the worldview of modern man?
It asserts that God exists and life does not end at the grave.
What are the two conditions necessary for a meaningful life according to biblical Christianity?
- God
- Immortality
What does the text suggest about the consequences of God’s existence?
If God does not exist, then life is futile; if God does exist, then life is meaningful.
What does the author argue a rational person should choose if the evidence for God’s existence and non-existence were equal?
A rational person ought to choose to believe in God.
What famous quote by Pascal is referenced in the text?
We have nothing to lose and infinity to gain.
What is the author’s modest goal in discussing the absurdity of life without God?
To encourage the reader to think about the question of God’s existence and its profound consequences.
Fill in the blank: The consequence of relativism is that the quest for self-fulfillment becomes radically _______.
privatized.
True or False: The text claims that living without God can still be a source of happiness.
False.
What happens if God does not exist according to the text?
All human life as well as every individual life will eventually be destroyed.
What is the implication of having no God and no life beyond the grave?
Life itself has no objective meaning, value, or purpose.
What is the significance of immortality in relation to meaning?
Without immortality your life has no ultimate significance and makes no difference to the world’s outcome.
What does the absence of God imply about the framework for human life?
There is no broader framework within which man’s life can be seen to matter.
How does the lack of immortality affect moral accountability?
Without immortality there is no moral accountability, and your moral choices become inconsequential.
What are moral values viewed as without God?
Moral values are just delusions ingrained into us by evolution and social conditioning.
What is the ultimate destination of life without immortality?
Extinction in death.
What does the absence of God suggest about one’s purpose in life?
There is no purpose for which you came into this world.
Is it possible to live consistently and happily with an atheistic worldview?
No, it is impossible.
What happens if we live happily as atheists?
It is only by inconsistently affirming meaning, value, and purpose for our lives.
What is the consequence of living consistently as atheists?
We shall be profoundly unhappy and even in despair.
What does biblical Christianity assert about God and life?
God exists and life does not end at the grave.
What two conditions does biblical Christianity affirm for a meaningful life?
God and immortality.
How does biblical Christianity provide a framework for living?
It supplies a framework within which one can live consistently and happily.
Why should one consider the truth of biblical Christianity?
It challenges the worldview of modern man.
Who was Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz?
A German philosopher, mathematician, and logician who invented differential and integral calculus independently around the same time as Isaac Newton.
What did Leibniz spend the last five years of his life doing?
Defending himself against accusations that he had stolen Newton’s ideas.
What is the first question that Leibniz believed should be asked?
Why is there something rather than nothing?
What conclusion did Leibniz reach regarding the existence of the universe?
The explanation for why anything exists is found in God.
What are the three premises in Leibniz’s reasoning?
- Everything that exists has an explanation of its existence.
- If the universe has an explanation of its existence, that explanation is God.
- The universe exists.
What logical conclusion follows from the premises?
The explanation of the universe’s existence is God.
True or False: Leibniz’s argument is considered logically airtight.
True.
What must an atheist deny to reject Leibniz’s conclusion?
Either premise 1 or premise 2.
Fill in the blank: Leibniz wrote, ‘The first question which should rightly be asked is: Why is there ______ rather than nothing?’
something
According to Leibniz, where should we look for the explanation of existence?
In God.
What did Leibniz co-discover?
Calculus.
Where did the author grow up?
Keokuk, Iowa.
What common childhood experience does the author describe?
Catching various pets such as frogs, toads, snakes, and birds.
What philosophical question occupied the minds of great philosophers for centuries?
Why does anything at all exist?
What is the significance of the phrase ‘In the beginning was the Word’?
It suggests a foundational belief in a Creator in relation to the existence of all things.
What is Premise 1 of the Leibnezian Cosmological Argument?
Everything that exists has an explanation of its existence.
What is the initial objection to Premise 1 of the Leibnezian Cosmological Argument regarding God?
If God exists, then God must have an explanation of His existence, which implies a greater being, which is impossible.
How do believers and atheists differ in their view of existence?
Believers say God exists inexplicably; atheists say the universe exists inexplicably.
What are the two kinds of things according to Leibniz?
- Things that exist necessarily
- Things that are produced by some external cause.
Define ‘things that exist necessarily.’
Things that exist by a necessity of their own nature and cannot fail to exist.
What are ‘things that exist contingently’?
Things that can fail to exist and need an external cause to explain their existence.
How can Premise 1 of the Leibnezian Cosmological Argument be more fully stated?
Everything that exists has an explanation of its existence, either in the necessity of its own nature or in an external cause.
What is the explanation of God’s existence according to Leibniz?
The necessity of His own nature.
What does the phrase ‘size doesn’t matter’ imply in the context of Premise 1 of the Leibnezian Cosmological Argument?
Increasing the size of an object does not remove the need for an explanation of its existence.
What is the ‘taxicab fallacy’?
The error of exempting the universe from the rule that everything has an explanation.
Why is it unscientific to claim the universe has no explanation?
Modern cosmology is devoted to the search for an explanation of the universe’s existence.
What is an example of an informal fallacy?
The taxicab fallacy.
Define cosmology.
The study of the large-scale structure and development of the universe.
What is the assumption in the argument that the universe cannot have an explanation?
It assumes that if there were no universe, there would be nothing.
What does Leibniz suggest is the explanation of the universe?
A prior state of affairs, which is God and His will.
True or False: Premise 1 of the Leibnizian Cosmological Argument is more plausibly true than false.
True.
What is the premise regarding the existence of the universe in the LCA?
If the universe has an explanation of its existence, that explanation is God.
What does logical equivalence mean?
Two statements are logically equivalent if it is impossible for one to be true and the other false.
What is contraposition in logic?
A statement of the form ‘If P, then Q’ is logically equivalent to ‘If not-Q, then not-P.’
What is the typical atheist response to Leibniz’s argument?
If atheism is true, the universe has no explanation of its existence.
How is the atheist response to premise 1 related to premise 2 in the Lieb Cos Arg?
The response implies that if the universe has an explanation, then atheism is not true.
What distinguishes abstract objects from concrete objects?
Abstract objects are causally effete or impotent, whereas concrete objects can cause effects in the world.
What are examples of abstract objects identified by philosophers?
- Mathematical entities (numbers, sets, functions) * Propositions * Properties * Fictional characters * Musical and literary works
What must the cause of the universe be if it exists?
A nonphysical, immaterial being beyond space and time.
What two sorts of things could fit the description of a nonphysical cause for the universe?
- An abstract object * An unembodied mind
What does the term ‘ultramundane’ mean?
Beyond the realm of our world.
What does Leibniz’s argument aim to prove?
The existence of a necessary, uncaused, timeless, spaceless, immaterial, personal Creator of the universe.
What radical alternative might atheists consider regarding the universe’s existence?
The universe exists by a necessity of its own nature.
What is the issue with the claim that the universe exists necessarily?
None of the things in the universe seems to exist necessarily; they could all fail to exist.
What are elementary particles in the context of matter?
They are the basic units of matter that cannot be further broken down.
Fill in the blank: An analogy is a point of _______ between two things.
similarity
Fill in the blank: A disanalogy is a point of _______ between two things.
difference
What does the analogy of a desk illustrate about the universe?
A universe made up of different particles would be a different universe.
What is the conclusion derived from the Leib Cos argument discussed?
God is the explanation of the existence of the universe.
What properties does God possess according to the argument?
- Uncaused * Unembodied Mind * Transcends the universe * Exists necessarily
What is the first premise of Leibniz’s Cosmological Argument?
Everything that exists has an explanation of its existence, either in the necessity of its own nature or in an external cause.
What principle does the story of finding a ball in the woods illustrate?
It illustrates the self-evident principle that everything has an explanation for its existence.
What is claimed about the universe in relation to the first premise of LCA?
The universe is an exception to this principle.
What fallacy is committed by making the universe an exception to the principle?
The taxicab fallacy.
What is argued against the claim that the universe cannot have an explanation?
It is impossible for the universe to have an explanation.
What assumption does the argument against the universe’s explanation make?
It assumes the universe is all there is, which begs the question in favor of atheism.
What is the second premise of Leibniz’s Cosmological Argument?
If the universe has an explanation of its existence, that explanation is God.
What is the atheist’s equivalent statement regarding the universe’s existence?
If God does not exist, the universe has no explanation.
What is argued about the necessity of the universe’s existence?
The universe does not exist necessarily, since different elementary particles could have existed.
What qualities must the being that caused space and time possess?
This being must be an unembodied, transcendent Mind.
What is the conclusion drawn from the statement that the universe exists?
Therefore, the universe has an explanation of its existence.
What follows from the premises that the universe exists and has an explanation of its existence?
Therefore, the explanation of the existence of the universe is God.
What is the main question addressed in the text?
Why did the universe begin?
This question reflects a longstanding philosophical and theological inquiry.
What concept did the author grapple with as a child regarding the universe?
The idea of a beginningless universe.
The author found it inconceivable to think of an infinite past.
What did ancient Greek philosophers believe about matter?
Matter was necessary and uncreated, therefore eternal.
They thought God introduced order into the cosmos but did not create the universe itself.
How did Hebrew writers’ views differ from those of ancient Greek philosophers?
Hebrew writers held that the universe was created by God at some point in the past.
This is reflected in Genesis 1:1.
What was the outcome of the debate in Western philosophy about the universe’s beginning?
It lasted over a thousand years and ended inconclusively in the thought of Immanuel Kant.
Kant argued that there are rationally compelling arguments for both sides.
Who was Abu Hamid Muhammad Ibn Muhammad Al-Ghazali?
A twelfth-century Muslim theologian from Persia.
He was influential in critiquing Greek philosophy’s influence on Islamic thought.
What prompted Al-Ghazali to leave Baghdad in 1095?
He believed it was impossible to live by the ethics of his religion while supporting corrupt rulers.
He sought a simpler life.
What is the title of Al-Ghazali’s critique of the philosophers?
The Incoherence of the Philosophers.
This book addresses the denial of God’s creation of the universe by some philosophers.
What is Al-Ghazali’s main argument regarding the universe?
The universe must have a beginning and therefore a cause.
He argues against the notion of a beginningless universe.
Summarize Al-Ghazali’s reasoning in three steps.
- Whatever begins to exist has a cause.
- The universe began to exist.
- Therefore, the universe has a cause.
True or False: Al-Ghazali believed that the universe is beginningless.
False.
He argued that the universe must have a beginning.
What must anyone who denies Al-Ghazali’s conclusion do?
They must regard either premise 1 or premise 2 as false.
What is the significance of the conclusion in Al-Ghazali’s argument?
If the premises are true, the conclusion necessarily follows.
This makes his argument logically airtight.
What is the first premise of the kalam cosmological argument?
Whatever begins to exist has a cause
Why is the claim that something can come into being from nothing considered impossible?
It would mean coming into being from nothing, which is logically implausible
What metaphor is used to illustrate the impossibility of something coming from nothing?
A magician pulling a rabbit out of a hat
Which famous quote from The Sound of Music supports the idea that nothing comes from nothing?
‘Nothing comes from nothing; nothing ever could.’
Who were the early proponents of the kalam cosmological argument?
Ancient Christian philosophers like John Philoponus of Alexandria
How did the kalam cosmological argument evolve across different cultures?
It was absorbed by Islam, mediated by Jews, and championed by St. Bonaventura in Christian West
What branch of philosophy explores questions about the nature of ultimate reality?
Metaphysics
What are some prominent issues in metaphysics?
- Nature of existence
- Nature of time and space
- Relation of mind and body
- Reality of abstract objects
- Existence of God
What caution should be taken regarding popular science articles?
They often use metaphors that can be misleading and inaccurate
What is the distinction made between ‘nothing’ in physics and the philosophical concept of ‘nothing’?
‘Nothing’ in physics is not just empty space; it is the absence of anything whatsoever
What is the ‘taxicab fallacy’ mentioned in the context of the universe?
Dismissing the causal principle for the universe while accepting it for everything else
What do skeptics often claim about the first premise of the kalam argument?
They argue that it applies to everything except the universe itself
What is the common experience regarding premise 1 of the kalam cosmological argument?
It is constantly verified and never falsified
What is the implication of denying the first premise for atheism according to the author?
Atheism is philosophically bankrupt
Fill in the blank: The kalam cosmological argument helps to build bridges for sharing one’s faith with _______.
[Jews and especially Muslims]
True or False: The universe is traditionally considered eternal and uncaused.
True
What does the author suggest is more plausible, the truth of premise 1 or its falsification?
Premise 1 is more plausibly true than false
What does the author think about the self-congratulatory attitude of students questioning the premises?
It reveals a misunderstanding of the premise
What is the conclusion about the kalam cosmological argument’s first premise?
It is clearly true and foundational to the argument
What is the second premise of the argument regarding the universe?
The universe began to exist.
What is the controversial aspect of the second premise of the KCA?
The claim that the universe began to exist.
What did Ghazali argue about an actually infinite number of things?
An actually infinite number of things cannot exist.
How does Ghazali differentiate between potential and actual infinity?
Potential infinity is an ideal limit never reached, while actual infinity is a complete collection greater than any finite number.
What is an example of potential infinity?
Dividing a finite distance in half endlessly.
What does Ghazali claim about the implications of an actually infinite number of past events?
It leads to various absurdities.
What is the conclusion drawn from Ghazali’s argument about the universe?
The universe cannot be beginningless; it must have begun to exist.
What objection is raised regarding Ghazali’s argument?
Modern mathematics has shown that actually infinite sets can exist.
What is the response to the objection about modern mathematics?
Such mathematical entities may not reflect real existence.
What analogy does Ghazali use to illustrate the impossibility of an actually infinite number of things?
Hilbert’s Hotel.
In Hilbert’s Hotel, what happens when a new guest arrives despite all rooms being full?
Guests are moved to make a new room available.
What occurs when an infinity of new guests arrives at Hilbert’s Hotel?
Current guests are moved to even-numbered rooms, freeing all odd-numbered rooms.
What paradox arises when guests check out of Hilbert’s Hotel?
An infinite number checks out, but the number of guests remains infinite.
What logical contradiction is highlighted in the context of Hilbert’s Hotel?
Subtracting identical quantities from identical quantities results in nonidentical outcomes.
What does Ghazali’s first argument ultimately suggest about the number of past events?
The number of past events must be finite.
True or False: Ghazali’s argument claims that an actually infinite number of things can exist without contradiction.
False.
Fill in the blank: Ghazali recognized that a _______ infinite number of things could exist.
potentially
Who developed the modern theory of infinite sets?
Georg Cantor.
What mental health condition is suggested to have affected Georg Cantor?
Bipolar disorder.
What was a significant consequence of Hilbert’s Hotel’s thought experiment?
It showcases the absurdity of assuming an actually infinite number of things can exist.
What happens if guests in odd-numbered rooms check out in Hilbert’s Hotel?
The hotel remains as full as before despite an infinite number of departures.
What is the fallacy of composition?
The fallacy of confusing a property of a part with a property of the whole
An example is that every part of an elephant may be light, but that doesn’t mean the whole elephant is light.
What is Ghazali’s second philosophical argument regarding the universe?
You can’t pass through an infinite number of elements one at a time.
How does Ghazali illustrate the impossibility of an infinite past?
By comparing past events to a series of dominoes falling one after another.
What analogy does Ghazali use to explain counting to infinity?
No matter how high you count, there’s always an infinity of numbers left to count.
Fill in the blank: The series of past events must be ______ and have a beginning.
finite
What is the main critique of Ghazali’s argument regarding the present and the past?
From every past point, we can reach the present.
What is the response to the critique that every past event is finitely distant from the present?
It commits the fallacy of composition.
What absurdity does Ghazali illustrate with the orbits of Jupiter and Saturn?
If both have been orbiting from eternity past, they would have completed the same number of orbits, which is absurd.
How does Ghazali illustrate the contradiction of someone counting down from infinity?
If he has been counting for an infinite amount of time, he should have already finished.
What conclusion does Ghazali reach about the series of past events?
It can’t be actually infinite; it must have had a beginning.
True or False: Ghazali argues that the universe began to exist.
True
What is the significance of Ghazali’s arguments for the kalam cosmological argument?
They provide support for the premise that the universe began to exist.
What term is used to describe a universe that contains many other expanding bubbles?
Multiverse
The multiverse concept suggests that our observable universe is just one bubble in a larger expanse.
What theorem applies to the multiverse as a whole?
Borde-Guth-Vilenkin theorem
This theorem indicates that even if a multiverse exists, it cannot be eternal in the past and must have had a beginning.
The __ of the universe supports the idea of the universe having a beginning?
The expansion of the universe
This evidence aligns with the second premise of the kalam cosmological argument.
Who independently developed models of an expanding universe in the 1920s?
Alexander Friedman and Georges Lemaitre
Their models challenged the static universe assumption held by Einstein.
What discovery did Edwin Hubble make in 1929?
The redshift in the light from distant galaxies
Hubble found that galaxies are moving away from us, indicating an expanding universe.
What analogy is used to illustrate the expansion of the universe?
A balloon with buttons glued to its surface
As the balloon expands, the buttons (representing galaxies) move farther apart, illustrating the expansion of space.
What does the term ‘Big Bang’ refer to in cosmology?
The initial expansion of the universe
The name can be misleading as it suggests an explosion into empty space, which is not the case.
What happens to space when tracing the expansion of the universe back in time?
The distance between any two points shrinks to zero
This indicates the boundary of space and time, marking the beginning of both.
According to Augustine of Hippo, when did God create the universe?
Simultaneously with time
Augustine believed that God created both space and time together, which aligns with modern cosmological views.
What does the geometric representation of space-time look like?
A cone
The cone has a boundary point in the past, indicating that past time is finite and had a beginning.
What is the implication of the Borde-Guth-Vilenkin theorem?
Any universe that has been expanding cannot be infinite in the past
This theorem confirms that the universe must have a past space-time boundary.
What do physicists propose about models that do not have an absolute beginning?
They are generally unworkable
Models that avoid the absolute beginning have repeatedly failed to provide a viable explanation.
What was the scientific community’s initial reaction to the Big Bang theory?
Reluctance to accept the idea of a cosmic genesis
The Big Bang model initially seemed to align with the Judeo-Christian idea of a universe with a beginning.
What evidence supports the Big Bang model?
- The redshift of light from distant galaxies
- The abundance of light elements like helium
- Cosmic background microwave radiation
These pieces of evidence support the idea that the universe began from a hot, dense state.
What does the standard Big Bang model predict?
An absolute beginning of the universe
This prediction has been supported over decades of observational astronomy.
What is equilibrium?
A state in which all forces are in balance and there is no change.
In the context of the universe, what does equilibrium refer to?
The point at which temperature and pressure are the same everywhere in the universe.
What is the second law of thermodynamics?
Unless energy is fed into a system, that system will become increasingly disorderly.
What happens to gas molecules in a closed vacuum over time according to the second law of thermodynamics?
The gas will spread itself evenly throughout the bottle.
What is the ‘heat death’ of the universe?
A state of equilibrium where the universe becomes a featureless soup with no life possible.
Why is the universe not currently in a state of heat death despite existing for an infinite amount of time?
Because the universe is still in a state of disequilibrium, where energy is available to be used.
Who formulated the second law of thermodynamics?
Rudolf Clausius.
What are the three fundamental laws of thermodynamics?
- First law: Energy in a physical system can be neither created nor destroyed.
- Second law: A closed system will tend toward increasing disorder (entropy) until it reaches equilibrium.
- Third law: As a system approaches absolute zero, its entropy approaches a certain minimum value.
What did Ludwig Boltzmann propose regarding the universe’s state?
The universe is in a state of overall equilibrium, with isolated pockets of disequilibrium arising by chance.
Why was Boltzmann’s many worlds hypothesis rejected by contemporary physicists?
It suggests we should observe a smaller region of order, which is vastly more probable than the large, sustained fluctuation needed to create our universe.
What happens to the universe if it expands forever?
It will never actually arrive at equilibrium; matter and energy will spread out but the universe will become increasingly cold and dark.
What occurs if the universe’s expansion slows down and halts?
Gravity will pull everything together in a catastrophic big crunch, leading to a black hole.
What is the fundamental question regarding the universe’s existence?
If the universe has existed for infinite time, why is it not currently in a state of equilibrium?
What is the implication of the universe having a finite beginning?
Matter and energy were put into the universe as an initial condition, following the second law of thermodynamics since then.
What is the thermodynamic property of oscillating models of the universe?
Entropy accumulates from cycle to cycle, leading to the conclusion of a first cycle and the origin of the universe.
What is the claim made by theorists proposing a multiverse of bubble universes?
The second law applies only to the bubbles, not to the whole multiverse.
What are ‘baby universes’ in the context of black holes?
Theories that black holes could be entrances to wormholes that spawn independent ‘baby universes.’
Why is the baby universe scenario considered invalid?
The second law of thermodynamics applies, and it contradicts subatomic physics regarding information in black holes.
What did Stephen Hawking admit regarding baby universes?
He admitted that ‘There is no baby universe branching off.’
What does the scientific evidence of thermodynamics confirm?
The truth of the second premise of the kalam cosmological argument.
What grounds do we have for believing that the universe began to exist?
Philosophical and scientific evidence
This conclusion is based on the premise that whatever begins to exist has a cause.
According to Daniel Dennett, what is the cause of the universe?
The universe itself
Dennett claims that the universe created itself, which is considered logically incoherent.
What must the cause of the universe be, according to the text?
A transcendent cause beyond the universe
This cause must be uncaused and cannot be an infinite series of causes.
What characteristics must the Uncaused First Cause possess?
- Transcends space and time
- Immaterial and nonphysical
- Unimaginably powerful
- A personal being
Why does Ghazali argue that the First Cause must be personal?
To explain how a timeless cause can produce a temporal effect with a beginning
This addresses the issue of causation in the context of the universe’s creation.
True or False: If a cause is present, its effect must also be present.
True
This principle relates to the relationship between cause and effect, as illustrated by the example of water freezing.
What problem does Ghazali raise regarding the cause of the universe?
Why isn’t the universe permanently there as well if its cause is timeless?
What solution does Ghazali propose for the problem of the universe’s existence?
The cause of the universe is a personal being with freedom of the will
This allows the act of creation to be spontaneous and independent of prior conditions.
How does God exist in relation to the universe according to the text?
God is changeless and timeless without the universe, and enters into time when He creates the universe.
What does the kalam cosmological argument support?
The existence of a beginningless, uncaused, timeless, spaceless, changeless, immaterial, enormously powerful Personal Creator of the universe.
What was Professor Hick’s reaction after reviewing the author’s dissertation on the cosmological argument?
He questioned why theologians are not familiar with the kalam argument.
What does the first premise of the Kalam Cosmological Argument state?
Whatever begins to exist has a cause
This premise asserts that something cannot come from nothing.
What is a common counterargument to the first premise?
Physics gives examples of things coming from nothing
This challenges the assertion that everything must have a cause.
What does the second premise of the Kalam Cosmological Argument claim?
The universe began to exist
This premise argues against the existence of an actually infinite number of past events.
What is the significance of mathematics in the Kalam Cosmological Argument?
Mathematics establishes only a universe of discourse
It is argued that mathematics does not prove the existence of an actual infinite.
True or False: Infinity is well understood in mathematics.
True
This statement acknowledges that infinity can be mathematically defined.
What does the counterargument suggest about absurd situations related to infinity?
Your absurd situations are what we should expect if an actual infinite exists
This implies that the existence of actual infinities leads to contradictions.
What fallacy is committed by the argument that a series formed successively can be actually infinite?
Fallacy of composition
This fallacy occurs when one assumes that what is true of parts is also true of the whole.
What does the expansion of the universe imply in the context of the Kalam Cosmological Argument?
It suggests nonstandard models of the origin of the universe exist
These models may also predict a beginning.
What is the conclusion of the Kalam Cosmological Argument?
Therefore, the universe has a cause
This conclusion follows logically from the first two premises.
What is a potential self-defeating claim about the universe having a cause?
The universe caused itself
This claim implies that the universe existed before it came to exist.
What characteristics are ascribed to the cause of the universe according to the Kalam argument?
Uncaused, timeless, spaceless, immaterial, powerful Personal Creator
This description characterizes the nature of the proposed cause.
What did ancient Greek philosophers find striking about the universe?
The order that pervades the cosmos and the constant revolution of stars and planets
This order was especially awe-inspiring to them.
According to Plato, what are the two arguments that lead men to believe in God?
- The argument from the existence of the soul
- The argument from the order of the motion of the stars and all things under the dominion of the Mind
These arguments were used by Plato to refute atheism.
What is the significance of Plato’s Academy?
It was a school founded by Plato around 387 BC that flourished for nine hundred years, focusing on the search for truth through rational inquiry
The Academy drew thinkers and students to explore profound questions.
Who was Aristotle in relation to Plato’s Academy?
An eighteen-year-old pupil who studied there until Plato’s death
Aristotle was significantly influenced by the teachings at the Academy.
What did Aristotle conclude about the cause of the universe?
Divine intelligence
He believed that the beauty and order of the cosmos indicated a higher power.
In Aristotle’s view, what would people living underground conclude upon seeing the sky for the first time?
That there exist gods and that the marvelous works are the handiwork of the gods
This reflects Aristotle’s belief in a divine creator based on the observation of the universe.
What does Aristotle argue in his Metaphysics?
There must be a First Uncaused Cause, which is God
This being is described as living, intelligent, immaterial, eternal, and most good.
What does Romans 1:20 suggest about the existence of God?
God’s invisible nature and eternal power can be perceived in the things that have been made
This verse supports the idea that design in the universe points to a creator.
What recent discoveries have astronomers made regarding the universe’s conditions for life?
The universe must have a complex and delicate balance of initial conditions to permit intelligent life
This challenges the previous assumption that life would evolve given enough time and luck.
What is meant by the term ‘fine-tuning’ of the universe?
The delicate balance of initial conditions necessary for the existence of intelligent life
This concept highlights the complexity and delicacy of the universe.
What are the two kinds of fine-tuning?
Constants of nature and arbitrary physical quantities
What does the equation F = Gm1m2/r2 represent?
The force of gravity
What is the gravitational constant symbolized by in the equation of gravity?
G
What are constants in the context of the laws of nature?
Unchanging quantities like the force of gravity, electromagnetic force, and weak force
True or False: The laws of nature determine the values of constants.
False
What is an example of an arbitrary physical quantity mentioned?
The amount of thermodynamic disorder (entropy) in the early universe
What does ‘fine-tuning’ refer to in the context of the universe?
The extraordinarily narrow range of values for constants and quantities that allow for life
What is the approximate number of seconds in the entire history of the universe?
10^17
How many subatomic particles are estimated to be in the entire known universe?
10^80
What does the term ‘fine-tuned’ imply?
The range of life-permitting values for constants and quantities is extremely narrow
What would happen if the weak force value were altered by one part out of 10^100?
It would have prevented a life-permitting universe
By how much could the cosmological constant be altered without rendering the universe life-prohibiting?
One part in 10^120
What are the odds of the low-entropy state of the universe existing by chance alone?
One chance out of 10^123
What does an accuracy of one part out of 10^60 compare to?
Firing a bullet toward a one-inch target twenty billion light-years away
What is the significance of fine-tuning in science?
It is scientifically well established and unlikely to disappear with the advance of science
What does it mean when scientists say a universe is life-permitting?
It refers to the property of organisms to take in food, extract energy, grow, adapt, and reproduce.
This definition encompasses all forms of life, not just current ones.
What must exist for life, as defined by scientists, to exist?
The constants and quantities of the universe must be unbelievably fine-tuned.
Without fine-tuning, matter and chemistry would not exist.
True or False: The argument from fine-tuning concerns universes governed by different laws of nature.
False
It focuses on universes governed by the same laws of nature but with different values of constants.
What does the fly on the wall analogy illustrate?
The improbability of a randomly chosen universe being life-permitting.
A solitary fly represents the rare occurrence of a life-permitting universe among many non-permitting ones.
What is the three-step argument for the design of the universe?
- The fine-tuning is due to either physical necessity, chance, or design.
- It is not due to physical necessity or chance.
- Therefore, it is due to design.
What are the three possible explanations for the fine-tuning of the universe?
- Physical necessity
- Chance
- Design
Each of these explanations considers different origins for the constants and quantities.
What is the first premise of the argument regarding fine-tuning?
The fine-tuning of the universe is due to either physical necessity, chance, or design.
What does the second premise state about fine-tuning?
The fine-tuning is not due to physical necessity or chance.
How does the argument from fine-tuning relate to biological evolution?
It shows that the evolution of intelligent life depends on the design of the initial cosmic conditions, circumventing the issue of biological evolution.
This highlights the improbability of explaining complex life without a Designer.
Fill in the blank: The constants and quantities must have the values they do due to _______.
[physical necessity]
Fill in the blank: The constants and quantities have the values they do simply by _______.
[chance]
Fill in the blank: The constants and quantities were _______ to have the values they do.
[designed]
What is the first alternative regarding the universe’s necessity?
The universe has to be life-permitting; life-prohibiting universes are physically impossible.
This view suggests that the constants and quantities must have specific values to allow for life.
What is the primary objection to the concept of physical necessity?
It seems implausible to claim that a life-prohibiting universe is a physical impossibility.
Critics argue that constants are not determined by the laws of nature and could theoretically be different.
What does the term ‘theory of everything’ (TOE) refer to?
A theory that aims to unify the four basic forces of nature into a single force.
It includes gravity, the weak force, the strong force, and electromagnetism.
What is the limitation of M-theory in relation to the universe?
M-theory requires eleven dimensions but does not explain why this specific number exists.
Additionally, M-theory does not uniquely predict a life-permitting universe.
What is the ‘cosmic landscape’ in the context of M-theory?
A range of possible universes consistent with M-theory, not a list of actual existing universes.
It describes the various configurations that are theoretically possible.
Is there evidence that a life-permitting universe is physically necessary?
No, evidence indicates that life-prohibiting universes are more likely than life-permitting ones.
This undermines the argument for design based on physical necessity.
What does the second alternative suggest about fine-tuning?
The fine-tuning could be due to chance, suggesting it is an accident that constants are life-permitting.
This perspective implies that we simply got lucky.
What is the fundamental problem with the chance alternative?
The improbability of a life-permitting universe existing by mere chance is so remote that it becomes unreasonable.
This highlights the difficulty of accepting chance as a sufficient explanation.
How does John Barrow illustrate the improbability of a life-permitting universe?
By representing our universe as a red dot on paper amidst a sea of blue dots (life-prohibiting universes).
This visual metaphor shows that life-prohibiting universes vastly outnumber life-permitting ones.
Fill in the blank: The constants and quantities must have values for a _______ universe to exist.
life-permitting
True or False: M-theory guarantees that a life-permitting universe will exist.
False
M-theory allows for many possible universes, most of which are life-prohibiting.
What happens when you alter the finely tuned constants in Barrow’s illustration?
You create new universes represented as dots, showing a predominance of life-prohibiting universes.
This illustrates the improbability of finding life-permitting universes among the possibilities.
What is the lottery analogy used to illustrate?
The analogy illustrates the misunderstanding of the argument for design versus chance.
The analogy compares the improbability of winning a lottery to the existence of a life-permitting universe.
What is the primary argument for design?
The argument for design seeks to explain why a life-permitting universe exists.
This contrasts with the misconception that it explains why a particular universe exists.
In the corrected lottery analogy, what is the key difference from the original?
The corrected analogy involves billions of white ping-pong balls and one black ping-pong ball, focusing on the odds of selecting a life-permitting ball.
The focus is on the improbability of selecting the black ball, which represents a life-permitting universe.
What conclusion can be drawn if the black ball is selected in the corrected analogy?
It would suggest that the lottery was rigged to allow for a life-permitting outcome.
This highlights the improbability of obtaining a life-permitting universe when overwhelmingly more outcomes are life-prohibiting.
What does the Anthropic Principle state?
The Anthropic Principle states that we can observe only those values of fundamental constants that are compatible with our existence.
This principle is used to argue that no explanation is needed for a life-permitting universe.
Why is the reasoning behind the Anthropic Principle considered fallacious?
It fails to address the need for an explanation of why a life-permitting universe exists despite the fact that we can only observe such a universe.
Just because we exist in a life-permitting universe does not eliminate the improbability of its existence.
What hypothetical scenario is used to illustrate the improbability of surviving a firing squad?
The scenario involves being shot at by a hundred marksmen at point-blank range and surviving.
This analogy emphasizes the improbability of surviving and the need for an explanation.
What should one conclude if they observe they are alive after a firing squad has shot at them?
One should conclude that the marksmen must have missed on purpose or that the situation was engineered.
This conclusion parallels the need to explain the existence of a life-permitting universe.
Fill in the blank: The odds against any particular ball being selected in the corrected lottery analogy are _______.
fantastically improbable.
True or False: The argument for design is trying to explain why a specific universe exists.
False.
What is the implication of getting the black ball multiple times in a row in the context of the lottery analogy?
It suggests that the outcome is not due to chance but rather manipulation.
This reinforces the idea that a life-permitting universe should raise questions about its existence.
What does the Anthropic Principle fail to eliminate without the many worlds hypothesis?
The need for an explanation of fine-tuning
The Anthropic Principle suggests that the universe’s parameters must allow for the existence of observers, but does not explain why those parameters are set as they are.
According to the many worlds hypothesis, what is our universe considered to be?
One member of a world ensemble or ‘multiverse’
The many worlds hypothesis posits an infinite number of universes with varying fundamental constants.
What is a possible response to the many worlds hypothesis regarding the multiverse?
The multiverse itself may involve fine-tuning
If the mechanism generating many worlds is itself fine-tuned, it raises the same fine-tuning problem it seeks to resolve.
What must a plausible mechanism for generating many worlds avoid to attribute fine-tuning to chance?
It must not be fine-tuned itself
If the mechanism is fine-tuned, it creates a new fine-tuning problem.
What does the vagueness of proposed mechanisms for the multiverse suggest?
It is unclear whether the physics of the multiverse involves fine-tuning
For example, the existence of eleven dimensions in M-theory remains unexplained.
What do proponents of the many worlds hypothesis need to believe?
There is an infinite number of unobservable universes
This belief is required to explain the existence of a life-permitting universe like ours by chance.
How does the many worlds hypothesis serve as a compliment to the design hypothesis?
It reflects the reluctance to accept design due to its speculative nature
Scientists may prefer the many worlds hypothesis over design, suggesting a compulsion to avoid admitting design.
What theorem challenges the existence of a world ensemble in the many worlds hypothesis?
The Borde-Guth-Vilenkin theorem
This theorem indicates that even a multiverse must have a beginning, implying a finite number of universes.
What is a significant objection raised against the many worlds hypothesis related to probability?
The odds of observing a finely tuned universe are vastly lower than observing a smaller region of order
Roger Penrose highlighted that the probability of our universe’s initial conditions existing by chance is astronomically low.
What phenomenon illustrates the problem with assuming our universe is just one of many?
The invasion of Boltzmann brains
This concept suggests that a random fluctuation could create a single brain with illusory perceptions of a larger universe.
What is the implication of believing in the many worlds hypothesis concerning our existence?
One would have to believe they are the only existence, with everything else being an illusion
This leads to a rational challenge against the many worlds hypothesis.
What is suggested as a rationally acceptable condition for the many worlds hypothesis?
That God created and ordered the multiverse
This would imply that the worlds within the multiverse are not randomly ordered.
What happens to the argument for chance as an explanation for fine-tuning with the failure of the many worlds hypothesis?
It collapses
The inability of both physical necessity and chance to explain fine-tuning strengthens the case for design.
What is the central argument of Richard Dawkins’ book The God Delusion?
- Explanation of complex design in the universe is a challenge.
- The temptation to attribute design to an actual designer exists.
- This leads to the problem of who designed the designer.
- Darwinian evolution by natural selection is the best explanation.
- No equivalent explanation exists for physics.
- We should hope for a powerful explanation in physics.
What conclusion does Dawkins reach regarding the existence of God?
God almost certainly does not exist.
What logical issue is identified with Dawkins’ conclusion?
The conclusion does not logically follow from the previous statements.
What is a possible basis for belief in God, according to the text?
- Cosmological argument.
- Moral argument.
- Religious experience.
- Divine revelation.
What is naturalism?
The belief that only natural explanations should be considered.
Why does naturalism rule out the designer hypothesis?
Because a designer is defined as supernatural.
What is the first problem with Dawkins’ Step 3 regarding explanations?
You don’t need to explain the explanation to recognize it as the best.
What analogy is used to illustrate the first problem with Step 3?
Archaeologists discovering artifacts and inferring they are not chance results.
What is the second problem with Dawkins’ Step 3?
Dawkins assumes the divine Designer is as complex as the universe.
What factors do scientists consider besides simplicity when assessing explanations?
- Explanatory power.
- Explanatory scope.
How is God characterized in terms of complexity?
God is a remarkably simple entity.
What does Dawkins confuse in his argument about God’s complexity?
A mind’s ideas with the simplicity of the mind itself.
What is the significance of the divine mind in terms of simplicity?
Postulating a divine mind represents an advance in simplicity.
Who previously held the title for the worst atheistic argument in Western thought?
Stephen Hawking.
Who is suggested to have taken the title for the worst atheistic argument after Hawking?
Richard Dawkins.
Fill in the blank: Dawkins’ lack of _______ is plainly on display in his argument.
philosophical depth
True or False: Dawkins provides a comprehensive explanation for cosmic fine-tuning.
False
What does the hope expressed in Dawkins’ Step 6 represent?
The faith of a naturalist.
Can we be good without God?
The question explores the nature of moral values and whether they are objective or subjective.
What are the four proposed bases of our values?
- Social convention
- Personal preference
- Evolution
- God
Who was William Sorley?
A professor of moral philosophy at Cambridge University who argued that morality supports the existence of God.
What is Sorley’s view on objective moral order?
He argues that it is as real and independent as the natural order.
What analogy does Sorley use to compare moral and natural orders?
Both are assumed to exist based on our experiences.
What is the moral argument for God’s existence?
- If God does not exist, objective moral values and duties do not exist.
- Objective moral values and duties do exist.
- Therefore, God exists.
What do students often believe about objective moral values?
They insist that objective moral values do exist.
What is the first premise of the moral argument?
If God does not exist, objective moral values and duties do not exist.
What is the distinction between values and duties?
- Values: whether something is good or bad
- Duties: whether something is right or wrong
What does moral value refer to?
The worth of a person or action, whether it is good or bad.
What does moral duty refer to?
Our obligation to act in a certain way, whether that action is right or wrong.
What is the difference between objective and subjective moral values?
- Objective: independent of people’s opinions
- Subjective: dependent on people’s opinions
What example illustrates objective moral values?
The Holocaust was objectively wrong, regardless of the beliefs of the Nazis.
What does it mean for moral values to be objective?
It means they are good or bad regardless of people’s opinions.
What is the implication of subjective moral values?
They depend on individual or cultural opinions.
True or False: The argument for God’s existence based on morality is complex and widely accepted.
False: It is simple and many people believe both premises.
What is a common reaction of students when discussing objective moral values?
They may struggle to reconcile their beliefs with the implications of relativism.
What is the traditional basis for moral values?
God, who is the highest Good.
This view posits that moral values are grounded in a divine authority.
What is the most popular form of atheism discussed?
Naturalism.
Naturalism asserts that only things described by our best scientific theories exist.
Why does the text argue that moral values don’t exist under naturalism?
Because science is morally neutral and moral values cannot be found in a test tube.
This implies that moral values are illusions created by human beings.
What are moral values considered to be on a naturalistic view?
By-products of biological evolution and social conditioning.
This view suggests that behaviors are shaped by survival advantages.
What does the concept of ‘herd morality’ refer to?
A morality that functions well in the perpetuation of our species.
This term implies a collective moral understanding among species.
What does the term ‘speciesism’ mean?
A prejudice or attitude of bias in favor of one’s own species.
Coined by Richard D. Ryder, it highlights bias against other species.
What conclusion does the text draw about human beings without God?
They are just apelike creatures with delusions of moral grandeur.
This suggests a diminished view of human moral significance without a divine basis.
What traditionally provides the basis for moral duties?
God’s commandments, such as the Ten Commandments.
These commandments are seen as the source of objective moral duties.
Why does the text question the existence of moral obligations in an atheistic view?
Because human beings are viewed as just animals with no moral obligations.
This perspective challenges the idea of inherent moral duties.
What example is given to illustrate the lack of moral dimension in animal behavior?
A lion killing a zebra and a shark copulating with a female.
These actions are described as natural occurrences without moral implications.
What is said about actions like incest and rape in the context of societal norms?
They may become taboo due to social and biological factors, but this does not prove they are truly wrong.
This raises questions about the objective nature of moral laws.
What happens if there is no moral lawgiver, according to the text?
There is no objective moral law that we must obey.
This conclusion emphasizes the need for a divine source of morality.
Fill in the blank: If God does not exist, moral values are just _______.
illusions of human beings.
True or False: Under naturalism, moral values are considered to be objectively true.
False.
What is the main misunderstanding of the moral argument when shared with unbelievers?
That it implies all atheists are bad people.
This misunderstanding leads to perceptions of judgmentalism and intolerance.
What does the moral argument assert regarding the necessity of belief in God?
Belief in God is not necessary for objective morality; God’s existence is necessary.
This clarifies that morality can exist independently of belief.
What is the key question of the moral argument?
If God does not exist, do objective moral values and duties exist?
What was the topic of the debate with Paul Kurtz?
Goodness without God Is Good Enough.
What was Paul Kurtz’s main argument against the necessity of God for morality?
He argued that many nonbelievers live moral lives, suggesting God is not essential.
This argument does not address the claim that morality is an illusion without God.
What is the Euthyphro dilemma?
Is something good because God wills it, or does God will something because it is good?
What happens if we say something is good because God wills it?
It becomes arbitrary; God could will anything as good.
What is the implication if we say God wills something because it is good?
Moral values exist independently of God.
What is the third alternative to the Euthyphro dilemma?
God wills something because He is good.
How does God’s nature relate to moral values?
God’s nature is the standard of goodness, and His commandments express that nature.
What does the solution to the Euthyphro dilemma imply about moral standards?
Moral values are not independent of God; they are defined by God’s character.
What logical impossibility does the question about God commanding child abuse illustrate?
It illustrates a false premise, similar to asking about a square circle.
Fill in the blank: The morally good/bad is determined by _______.
God’s nature.
Fill in the blank: The morally right/wrong is determined by _______.
God’s will.
What does atheistic moral platonism claim about moral values?
Atheistic moral platonism holds that objective moral values exist but are not grounded in God.
What is the Euthyphro dilemma often associated with?
The Euthyphro dilemma questions whether moral values are arbitrary if grounded in God.
Who are some philosophers that defend the view of moral values and duties?
- Robert Adams
- William Alston
- Philip Quinn
What is a key criticism of atheistic moral platonism?
It is unintelligible to say that moral values like justice exist without any foundation.
What moral duties does atheistic moral platonism fail to explain?
It provides no basis for why individuals have moral obligations to act in certain ways.
What is one reason given against the plausibility of atheistic moral platonism?
It’s improbable that an evolutionary process would produce creatures corresponding to abstract moral values.
What does humanism assert about moral values?
Humanism states that man is the measure of all things and that moral duties promote human flourishing.
What is a major criticism of humanism as a moral framework?
Its arbitrariness in deciding why human flourishing is more valuable than the flourishing of other species.
What do some atheists claim about moral properties and natural states of affairs?
They claim that moral properties like goodness and badness attach necessarily to certain natural states.
Why is it considered implausible that moral properties exist in an atheistic worldview?
There is no clear reason to believe that moral properties would attach to natural states without a moral framework.
What does the author suggest is a natural stopping point for objective moral values?
God is presented as the natural stopping point for objective moral values and duties.
What distinguishes theism from humanism in the context of moral values?
Theism is not characterized by arbitrariness and implausibility, as it grounds moral values in God.
Fill in the blank: Atheistic moral platonism lacks a _______ for moral obligation.
moral lawgiver
True or False: Atheistic moral platonism argues that moral values are dependent on human beings.
False
What is the second premise of the moral argument?
Objective moral values and duties exist.
This premise is foundational to the argument for the existence of God.
Who is more likely to believe in objective moral values according to surveys?
Professors, particularly philosophy professors, are more apt to believe in objective moral values than students.
This suggests a correlation between educational level and belief in objective morality.
What do philosophers say about moral experience compared to sensory experience?
Philosophers see no more reason to distrust moral experience than sensory experience.
This implies that moral experiences can be trusted to reveal objective values.
What are examples of actions widely recognized as morally wrong?
- Sexual abuse
- Rape
- Torture
- Child abuse
Such actions are viewed as moral abominations.
What is the effect of presenting moral atrocities on belief in objective moral values?
Presenting moral atrocities often convinces people that objective moral values do exist.
Examples include practices like suttee and historical events like the Crusades.
What fallacy does the sociobiological account commit regarding moral beliefs?
The genetic fallacy.
This fallacy invalidates a belief based on how it was formed rather than its truth.
What does the sociobiological account suggest about the origins of moral beliefs?
Moral beliefs are shaped by evolution and social conditioning.
This raises questions about the truth and justification of those beliefs.
What is one major problem with the objection to moral experience based on sociobiology?
It assumes atheism is true, which undermines the objectivity of moral beliefs.
If God exists, He may guide the evolution of our moral beliefs.
What does Romans 2:14-15 suggest about moral knowledge?
Even Gentiles know God’s law instinctively, as it is written in their hearts.
This indicates an inherent understanding of morality in humans.
What conclusion can be drawn from the premises of the moral argument?
God exists.
This conclusion complements other arguments for God’s existence, such as cosmological and design arguments.
Why is the moral argument considered effective?
It addresses daily questions of morality that people face in their lives.
This makes the moral argument relevant and impactful.
Fill in the blank: According to the argument, we cannot truly be good without _______.
God.
This statement emphasizes the connection between morality and the divine.
What is Theism?
God exists.
What is Atheism?
God does not exist.
What is Agnosticism?
God may or may not exist.
What does suffering produce according to Romans 5:3-4?
Suffering produces perseverance, perseverance produces character, and character produces hope.
What is the atheist’s main complaint regarding God’s existence?
There isn’t any evidence for God’s existence.
What should a believer do when an unbeliever claims there’s no evidence for God?
Present at least four good arguments that show God exists.
What common response do nonbelievers often have to arguments for God’s existence?
That’s no evidence that God exists!
True or False: The absence of evidence is proof that something does not exist.
False.
What is a saying from criminologists related to evidence?
Absence of evidence is not evidence of absence.
What do atheists often admit regarding evidence for God’s absence?
They have no evidence of God’s absence.
How is atheism often redefined by atheists?
As the absence of belief in God.
What is a problem with defining atheism as the absence of belief?
It is not a true viewpoint or position.
According to the new definition of atheism, who else can be considered an atheist?
Even babies and animals like cats.
What is required from anyone claiming God does not exist?
Some evidence or arguments for their position.
What is a common issue with engaging nonbelievers in discussions about God’s existence?
They often repeat their claims without engaging with specific arguments.
Fill in the blank: Atheism involves a _______ negative.
universal.
True or False: It’s impossible to prove a universal negative.
False.
What should believers have memorized to effectively engage with nonbelievers?
A few arguments for the existence of God.
What emotional aspect might influence a person’s rejection of God?
A deeper emotional rejection of God.
What is the most important argument against God’s existence according to thoughtful atheists?
The problem of suffering
This argument highlights the extent of suffering in the world, questioning the existence of a benevolent God.
What two incidents related to suffering are mentioned as impactful examples?
- The earthquake in Mexico City
- The mudslide in Colombia
These incidents illustrate the emotional weight of suffering and the difficulty in reconciling it with the belief in God.
What emotional response did the author have to the suffering of the children in the examples provided?
Heartbreak and questioning God’s allowance of such suffering
The author expressed confusion about why God would permit such torturous deaths.
What distinction must be made when discussing the problem of suffering?
- The intellectual problem of suffering
- The emotional problem of suffering
It’s important to differentiate between the philosophical implications of suffering and the personal emotional reactions to it.
What does the intellectual problem of suffering question?
Whether it’s plausible for God and suffering to coexist
This question addresses the logical compatibility of a benevolent deity with the existence of suffering.
What does the emotional problem of suffering concern?
People’s dislike of a God who would permit suffering
This reflects the personal and emotional rejection of belief in God due to the existence of suffering.
True or False: The answer to the emotional problem of suffering is likely to satisfy those contemplating suffering philosophically.
False
The emotional response to suffering often requires a more personal and empathetic approach than philosophical arguments provide.
According to the author, what is the primary reason for most people’s unbelief regarding God and suffering?
It is mainly an emotional problem, not an intellectual one
Many people reject the idea of God due to personal feelings about suffering rather than logical refutation.
Fill in the blank: The problem of suffering is often seen as a proof of _______.
atheism
Many argue that the existence of suffering contradicts the existence of a benevolent God.
What does the author suggest is necessary to support the claim that suffering is primarily an emotional problem?
Examining the intellectual problem in detail
Understanding the philosophical arguments can help clarify the distinction between emotional and intellectual responses to suffering.
Who has the burden of proof in the intellectual problem of suffering?
The atheist
The atheist must provide an argument leading to the conclusion that God does not exist.
What are the two versions of the intellectual problem of suffering?
- Logical version
- Evidential version
What does the logical version of the problem of suffering claim?
It is logically impossible for God and suffering to coexist.
What does the evidential version of the problem of suffering claim?
It is highly improbable that God and suffering coexist.
What two statements are claimed to be logically inconsistent by the atheist?
- An all-loving, all-powerful God exists
- Suffering exists
What are the two hidden assumptions made by the atheist in the logical version?
- If God is all-powerful, He can create any world that He wants
- If God is all-loving, He prefers a world without suffering
What is libertarian freedom?
The ability to choose between action A or not-A in the same circumstances.
What does libertarian freedom emphasize regarding causal determination?
Absence of causal determination of a person’s choice apart from the person’s own causal activity.
What is the flaw in the assumption that if God is all-powerful, He can create any world?
It does not account for the possibility of free will.
What is a logically impossible action according to the text?
Making someone do something freely.
What does assumption 4, regarding an all-loving God, suggest?
God prefers a world without suffering.
Why might suffering be permitted by God according to the text?
To bring about a greater good.
What is a possible statement that shows the logical consistency of God and suffering?
God could not have created another world with as much good as, but less suffering than, this world, and God has good reasons for permitting the suffering that exists.
What conclusion is drawn about the logical version of the problem of suffering?
It has failed to prove that the coexistence of God and suffering is impossible.
True or False: The burden of proof for the coexistence of God and suffering is too heavy for the atheist to bear.
True
What is the evidential problem of suffering?
The claim that the suffering in the world renders it improbable that God exists.
What does the atheistic claim about suffering suggest?
It suggests that God could not have good reasons for permitting suffering.
Why is the evidential argument considered more powerful than the logical version?
Its conclusion is more modest, stating that it’s improbable that God exists.
What is the first point made in response to the evidential problem of suffering?
We are not in a position to say that it’s improbable that God lacks good reasons for permitting suffering.
What limitations do finite persons have according to the text?
Limitations in space and time, intelligence, and insight.
How does God perceive history compared to humans?
God sees the end of history from its beginning and providentially orders history.
What can suffering that appears pointless within our framework be seen as?
It may be seen as justly permitted by God within His wider framework.
What concept does chaos theory illustrate regarding small disturbances?
Small disturbances can have extraordinary effects on large-scale systems.
What is the example given from the movie ‘Sliding Doors’?
A split-second decision leads to two diverging paths in a woman’s life.
What is the outcome for the young woman in the successful life in ‘Sliding Doors’?
She is suddenly killed in an accident.
What does the alternate life in ‘Sliding Doors’ represent?
A life of hardship and suffering that turns out to be the truly good life.
What does the text suggest about our ability to judge God’s reasons for suffering?
We are simply in no position to judge that God has no good reason for permitting suffering.
What historical event is mentioned to illustrate the complexity of God’s reasons?
The Allied victory at D-day.
What is the key idea about human actions and their outcomes according to the text?
We have no idea of the ultimate outcome of our actions.
What ethical theory is discussed in relation to the limitations of human judgment?
Utilitarianism.
Fill in the blank: The atheistic argument leads to the conclusion that suffering appears _______.
pointless and unnecessary.
True or False: The text claims that we can easily determine God’s reasons for permitting suffering.
False.
What is the overall stance taken in the text regarding suffering and God’s existence?
Finite, limited observers cannot confidently speculate about God’s reasons for suffering.
What is the relationship between probabilities and background information?
Probabilities are always relative to some background information.
For example, the probability of a college student drinking beer changes based on the specific college’s drinking culture.
What question should one ask when the atheist claims God’s existence is improbable?
Improbable relative to what?
This question seeks to understand the background information being considered.
What is the moral argument for the existence of God?
- If God does not exist, objective moral values do not exist.
- Evil exists.
- Therefore, objective moral values exist (some things are evil!).
- Therefore, God exists.
How does suffering relate to the existence of God according to the argument presented?
Suffering calls into question God’s existence, but it actually proves God’s existence because suffering is not really bad without God.
The argument states that moral judgments about suffering imply the existence of God.
What assumption do most people writing about the problem of suffering make?
They assume that there are no good arguments for the existence of God.
This leads to the perspective that suffering makes atheism more probable.
Can one concede that God’s existence is improbable relative to suffering?
Yes, but this improbability can be outweighed by the arguments for God’s existence.
The text suggests that while suffering might seem to challenge belief in God, there are strong arguments that support God’s existence.
Fill in the blank: Probabilities are relative to _______.
[background information]
True or False: The existence of evil is used to argue against the existence of God.
True
The argument highlights how evil prompts questions about God’s existence.
What is the chief purpose of life according to Christian doctrine?
The knowledge of God
This view contrasts with the idea that happiness is the ultimate goal of life.
What state is mankind in according to Christian belief?
Rebellion against God and His purpose
This rebellion results in moral guilt and spiritual alienation from God.
Is God’s purpose limited to this life according to Christianity?
No, it extends into eternal life
Life on Earth is seen as a preparation for eternal existence with God.
What is considered an incommensurable good in Christianity?
The knowledge of God
This knowledge is deemed the fulfillment of human existence.
True or False: The ‘health and wealth’ gospel aligns with true Christian doctrine.
False
Such teachings are criticized for being unrealistic and misleading.
What might the suffering experienced in life lead to, according to Christian teaching?
Deeper knowledge of God
Suffering can foster dependency and trust in God.
Fill in the blank: According to Christianity, the chief purpose of human history is the _______.
kingdom of God
This purpose shapes the understanding of suffering and life events.
What does the apostle Paul say about momentary afflictions?
They prepare for an eternal weight of glory
This perspective emphasizes the transient nature of earthly suffering.
According to Christian doctrine, what is the relationship between suffering and the growth of Christianity in difficult regions?
Suffering can lead to significant growth in the church
Historical examples include China, El Salvador, and Ethiopia.
What does the Christian view say about human moral responsibility in the face of evil?
It heightens our moral responsibility before God
This is linked to the belief in free will and the consequences of sin.
Fill in the blank: Suffering may serve no earthly good but can lead to _______ in faith and eternal life.
reward
The ultimate reward is believed to be in the afterlife for those who endure suffering.
What is the Christian response to the problem of suffering?
It does not disprove God’s existence
The existence of suffering is compatible with a Christian understanding of God.
True or False: The atheist has the burden of proof to show God’s existence is improbable given suffering.
True
The argument is that if the Christian doctrines are true, suffering does not negate God’s existence.
What role does suffering play in the perspective of eternity according to Christian belief?
It is seen as a slight momentary affliction compared to eternal joy
This perspective helps believers endure present hardships.
What does the Christian doctrine suggest about the nature of human suffering?
It is often a byproduct of human sin and moral failure
The fallen state of humanity contributes to the existence of suffering.
Fill in the blank: The knowledge of God is considered the _______ of human existence.
fulfillment
This knowledge surpasses any suffering experienced in life.
What does the author mean by ‘fails intellectually’ in the context of suffering?
It refers to the inability to fully comprehend the anguish and doubt surrounding suffering.
The emotional problem of suffering often overshadows intellectual considerations.
Why is it important to address the intellectual aspect of suffering?
To respect people’s opinions and help them recognize the true emotional nature of their problem.
Many individuals perceive their suffering as an intellectual issue.
What is the most significant response to someone struggling with the emotional problem of suffering?
Being there as a loving friend and sympathetic listener.
Sometimes, counsel may be needed, but presence is often more impactful.
How does the Christian faith offer resources to deal with suffering?
It portrays God as a loving Father who shares our sufferings and hurts with us.
This contrasts with the view of God as a distant Creator.
What suffering did Christ endure, according to the text?
He bore the punishment for the sins of the whole world, an incomprehensible suffering.
This suffering was voluntary and motivated by love.
What can meditation on the cross of Christ provide during personal suffering?
Strength and courage to bear one’s own cross.
Reflecting on Christ’s suffering can provide perspective on our own trials.
Fill in the blank: Knowing God is an ________ good to which our suffering cannot even be compared.
incommensurable
What was Mabel’s condition as described in the text?
She was bedridden, blind, nearly deaf, and alone for twenty-five years.
Mabel’s physical suffering was profound, yet her spirit remained strong.
What did Mabel say when given a flower?
She asked if she could give it to someone else, saying, ‘This is from Jesus.’
This illustrates her focus on giving and connection despite her suffering.
How did Mabel respond when asked what she thinks about all day?
‘I think about my Jesus.’
This highlights her deep faith and focus on God amid her suffering.
What does Mabel’s attitude towards her suffering demonstrate?
She possessed incredible power despite her physical limitations.
This power stemmed from her faith and perspective on life.
True or False: The problem of suffering is the greatest objection to the existence of God.
True
What is the ultimate solution to the problem of suffering, according to the text?
God is the final answer, redeeming us from evil and leading us to everlasting joy.
This joy is defined as fellowship with God.
What significant claim did Professor John Hick and his team make about Jesus?
They claimed that the divine Christ in the gospels is a myth and that Jesus never claimed to be divine.
What is the primary focus of the next two chapters in the text?
To look at evidence that supports the radical personal claims and resurrection of Jesus.
Why is context important when discussing events like Jesus’ resurrection?
An event without context is inherently ambiguous, especially for alleged miracles.
What is the primacy of the New Testament documents in understanding Jesus?
They are the primary sources for knowing what Jesus said and did since He left no writings.
Which ancient sources are we dependent upon for knowledge of Jesus’ life and teachings?
Records of Jesus’ followers, similar to how we know about Socrates through Plato.
What is a common misconception about examining the New Testament for historical accuracy?
That examining the New Testament is reasoning in a circle or begging the question.
When was the New Testament officially collected into one book?
A couple of centuries after the first century.
What criteria did the early church use to select documents for the New Testament?
They chose the earliest sources closest to Jesus and the original disciples.
What are apocryphal gospels?
Gospels forged under the apostles’ names, appearing in the second half of the second century.
What pattern do books claiming to uncover the ‘real Jesus’ typically follow?
- They begin with the author’s scholarly credentials
- They claim to offer new interpretations
- They rely on sources outside the Bible
- They present provocative claims
- They imply traditional beliefs need revision
True or False: The documents in the New Testament are considered the primary sources for the life of Jesus.
True
What is one reason the apocryphal gospels are significant to church historians?
They provide insight into various competing movements influenced by pagan gnostic philosophy.
Fill in the blank: The apocryphal gospels include the Gospel of _______.
Peter
What common belief about Jesus is challenged by radical critics?
The belief in Jesus’ divinity and His resurrection as literal historical events.
Which historical figures are mentioned as comparably investigable to Jesus?
- Julius Caesar
- Alexander the Great
Why do some critics demand evidence only from writings outside the New Testament?
They believe it would provide a more objective understanding of Jesus.
What is often the issue with radical reconstructions of the historical Jesus?
They are based on later, secondary writings that lack historical credibility.
What is the central question regarding the burden of proof in relation to the gospels?
Should we assume that the gospels are reliable unless proven unreliable, or vice versa?
What assumption do skeptical scholars typically make about the gospels?
They assume that the gospels are guilty until proven innocent.
What is the first reason given for why the skeptical assumption about the gospels is wrong?
There was insufficient time for legendary influences to erase the core historical facts.
What is more important than the gap between the evidence and today when evaluating historical events?
The gap between the evidence and the original events.
How close are the primary sources for Jesus’ life to the time he lived?
Most of the primary sources were written within 60 years of Jesus’ crucifixion.
How do the gospels differ from folk tales or contemporary urban legends?
The gospels concern actual historical individuals, events, and places.
Who are some historical figures mentioned in the gospels that are also referenced by Josephus?
- Pontius Pilate
- Joseph Caiaphas
- John the Baptist
What was the characteristic of the Jewish transmission of sacred traditions in the first-century oral culture?
It was highly developed and reliable.
What skill was highly prized in first-century Israel related to oral tradition?
The ability to memorize and retain large tracts of oral tradition.
What analogy is deemed a gross misrepresentation when comparing Jewish tradition transmission?
The child’s game of ‘telephone’.
What were significant restraints on embellishing traditions about Jesus?
- The presence of eyewitnesses
- The supervision of the apostles
What term is more accurate to describe the traditions about Jesus due to the presence of eyewitnesses?
Oral history.
What track record do the gospel writers have regarding historical reliability?
They have a proven track record of reliability.
What is typically found when checking the discrepancies in the gospels?
Discrepancies are the exception, not the norm.
Fill in the blank: The typical result of checking the gospels is that they are shown to be ______.
[reliable]
Who is considered the father of history?
Herodotus
Herodotus was a Greek writer from the fifth century BC known for his work Istoriai.
What does the Greek word ‘Istoriai’ mean?
‘Inquiries’ or ‘Researches’
The term ‘Istoriai’ is the title of Herodotus’s work, which is generally referred to as The Histories.
What major historical event did Herodotus write about?
The war between the Greeks and Persians
Herodotus collected historical information about the Greco-Persian war.
What is a key criticism of Herodotus’s work?
He included stories that are more colorful than credible
There is uncertainty about the reliability of his accounts and whether he visited all the places he described.
What is the significance of the time gap between Jesus’ death and the writing of the gospels?
It is too short for legendary influences to erase core historical facts
This point is argued by A. N. Sherwin-White.
What is the relationship between the gospels and the events they describe?
The gospels were written down and circulated during the first generation after the events
Eyewitnesses were still alive at the time of the gospels’ composition.
Who wrote the two-part work that includes the Gospel of Luke?
Luke
Luke also authored the Acts of the Apostles.
What does Luke claim in the preface of his work?
He writes an orderly account based on eyewitness information
Luke emphasizes his thorough investigation and reliance on eyewitness accounts.
What unique narratives are found in the Gospel of Luke?
The birth narratives, the account of Jesus as a boy, Jesus’ rejection in Nazareth, the account of women who traveled with Jesus
Specific examples include Luke 1:5—2:40, Luke 2:41-52, Luke 4:14-30, and Luke 8:1-3.
What does Professor Sherwin-White say about the confirmation of historicity in Acts?
The confirmation of historicity is overwhelming
Sherwin-White argues that attempts to reject the historicity of Acts are absurd.
What is the general scholarly consensus about Luke as a historian?
Luke is considered a historian of the first rank
Sir William Ramsey described Luke among the greatest historians.
True or False: The gospels can be assumed to be wrong until proven right.
False
The text suggests we should assume the historical reliability of the gospels unless proven otherwise.
Fill in the blank: The writings of Herodotus help historians determine the ______ of legendary influences.
rate
Historians can assess how quickly legends accumulate based on Herodotus’s accounts.
What does the term ‘passion story’ refer to?
The story of Jesus’ suffering and death
The passion story is a significant narrative in the gospels.
How do Paul’s letters contribute to the historical reliability of the gospels?
They provide early information about Jesus’ life and resurrection appearances
Some of Paul’s letters were dated within five years after Jesus’ death.
What is the purpose of the criteria of authenticity?
To enable scholars to affirm that some events in the gospels are historical
What does the presence of a sign of historical authenticity indicate?
Increases the probability that the recorded incident is historical
List three key signs of historical authenticity.
- Historical fit
- Independent, early sources
- Embarrassment
What does ‘historical fit’ refer to?
The incident fits in with known historical facts of the time and place
What are ‘independent, early sources’?
Multiple sources near the time of the incident that don’t rely on each other
Define ‘embarrassment’ in the context of historical authenticity.
The incident is awkward or counterproductive for the early Christian church
What is ‘dissimilarity’?
The incident is unlike earlier Jewish ideas and/or unlike later Christian ideas
What are ‘semitisms’?
Traces of Hebrew or Aramaic language appearing in the story
Explain ‘coherence’ as a criterion of authenticity.
The incident fits in with facts already established about Jesus
Can the criteria of authenticity be used to deny historical credibility?
No, they can only be used to establish historicity
What is the significance of the failure to prove an incident historical?
It leaves one in a position of neutrality regarding its historicity
Do the criteria presuppose the general reliability of the gospels?
No, they apply to specific incidents, not to a whole book
How can specific incidents be evaluated?
By using the criteria of authenticity independently of other events
What general problem do critics face when denying radical claims made by Jesus?
The attribution of divinity to Jesus by contemporaries soon after His death
What does monotheism represent in the Jewish religion?
The belief in one God, making claims of divinity for a human blasphemous
What are explicit claims made by Jesus in the gospels?
Self-descriptions that provide insight into His self-understanding
What was the previous scholarly consensus about Jesus’ claims?
That Jesus never claimed to be the Messiah or the Son of God
What has changed regarding scholarly opinion on Jesus’ claims?
The balance of scholarly opinion may have tipped in favor of the authenticity of His claims
Name three of Jesus’ explicit claims.
- Claims to be the Messiah
- Claims to be the unique Son of God
- Claims to be the Son of Man
What is the ancient hope of Israel regarding a Messiah?
The hope is for a Messiah or Anointed One sent from God, particularly a descendant of King David who would become king over Israel and the nations.
This Messiah is envisioned as both a warrior king and a spiritual shepherd.
What does the Greek word ‘Christos’ mean?
‘Christos’ means Messiah.
Early Christians used this title so closely with Jesus that it became a proper name: ‘Jesus Christ.’
How did early Christians identify themselves in relation to Jesus?
They identified themselves as ‘Christians,’ indicating their belief that Jesus was the promised Messiah.
Did Jesus explicitly claim to be the Messiah?
No, Jesus did not explicitly claim to be the Messiah in a way that reestablished David’s throne.
His crucifixion and the belief in His resurrection alone would not have led His followers to see Him as the Messiah.
What is the significance of Peter’s confession about Jesus?
Peter answered Jesus’ question by saying, ‘You are the Messiah,’ indicating a recognition of Jesus’ messianic identity.
This is recorded in Mark 8:27-30.
What criteria support the historical incident of Peter’s confession?
The criteria of embarrassment, historical fit, and coherence with other authentic material.
Peter’s acknowledgment is also confirmed in John 6:69.
What does Jesus’ response to John the Baptist illustrate?
It illustrates Jesus’ self-consciousness of being the Messiah.
John asked Jesus if He was ‘the one who is to come,’ which aligns with messianic expectations.
What prophecy does Jesus fulfill during His triumphal entry into Jerusalem?
He fulfills the prophecy of Zechariah 9:9 by riding into Jerusalem on a donkey.
This act is a dramatic assertion of His messianic status.
What accusations arose regarding Jesus’ actions in the temple?
Jesus was accused of claiming to destroy the temple and rebuild it, asserting His authority in the holiest precincts of Judaism.
This is tied to prophecies about the Messiah in Jewish literature.
What was the charge against Jesus that led to His crucifixion?
The charge was that He claimed to be ‘The King of the Jews.’
This title was not used for Jesus by the early church, supporting its authenticity.
What do historical criteria indicate about Jesus’ view of Himself?
The overlapping of independent sources, historical fit, dissimilarity, and other criteria indicate that Jesus saw Himself as the Jewish Messiah.
Fill in the blank: The term used to describe Jesus’ followers is _______.
Christians
True or False: Jesus’ triumphal entry into Jerusalem was a private event.
False
What does the phrase ‘the one who is to come’ refer to?
It refers to the anticipated Messiah as prophesied by John the Baptist.
What was the significance of Jesus’ actions in the temple?
His actions caused a disruption in commercial activities, fulfilling prophecies about the Messiah’s authority.
This aligns with Zechariah’s prophecy regarding the temple.
What is the ‘criterion of embarrassment’?
It is a principle used to assess the historicity of events, suggesting that if a detail is potentially embarrassing, it is likely true.
What are Jewish writings from the time of Christ that are not included in the Old Testament called?
Pseudepigrapha
These writings provide insight into Jewish religious life and thinking.
Name one example of Pseudepigrapha and its date.
Testament of the Twelve Patriarchs: second century BC
Other examples include 1 Enoch, Psalms of Solomon, 4 Ezra, and 2 Baruch.
What does the term ‘Messiah’ typically refer to in scholarly discussions?
A human figure
However, some pre-Christian Jewish documents portray the Messiah as an exalted figure.
In the Psalms of Solomon, how is the Messiah described?
The Lord Messiah who will strike the earth with the word of his mouth forever
He is described as free from sin and will not weaken.
What title is given to the Messiah in Isaiah 9:6?
Mighty God
This reflects the divine aspect attributed to the Messiah.
What does Jesus identify Himself as in relation to John the Baptist?
The Son of Man who has come after John the Baptist
This indicates His divine-human aspect.
What does Jesus’ parable of the wicked tenants symbolize?
Israel
The owner represents God, the tenants are the Jewish religious leaders, and the son is Jesus.
What does Jesus claim about His relationship with God in Matthew 11:27?
He is the exclusive Son of God
This indicates His unique authority to reveal God the Father.
True or False: Jesus claimed ignorance about the date of His return.
True
This claim emphasizes His unique sonship and distinguishes Him from divine knowledge.
What does the term ‘Son of God’ imply in a Jewish context?
Jewish kings were referred to as God’s sons
A righteous man could also be characterized as having God as his father.
Fill in the blank: Jesus thought of Himself as God’s unique Son merely in the sense that He was the _______.
promised Messiah
This reflects His unique role compared to other prophets.
How does 4 Ezra depict the Messiah?
As God’s Son who is mortal
This indicates that the Messiah will die after a certain period.
What is the significance of Jesus’ claim to be the unique Son of God?
It sets Him apart from all prophets and indicates exclusive knowledge of the Father
This claim has a higher level of proximity to the Father than any human or angelic being.
What does the New Testament suggest about the exalted conception of God’s Son?
It is not foreign to first-century Judaism
This is supported by passages in Colossians and Hebrews.
What is Jesus’ favorite self-description found in the gospels?
The Son of Man
This title is found over eighty times in the gospels.
How many times is the title ‘Son of Man’ found outside the gospels in the New Testament?
Once, in Acts 7:56
This indicates that the title was not a later addition in Christian tradition.
What does the definite article ‘the’ in ‘the Son of Man’ signify in Jesus’ self-reference?
It directs attention to the divine-human figure prophesied in Daniel 7:13-14.
What is the significance of Daniel 7:13-14 in relation to Jesus’ claim?
It describes a figure like a son of man who receives dominion and glory from God.
What is a key difference between Jesus and the Old Testament prophet Ezekiel’s use of ‘son of man’?
Jesus referred to Himself as ‘the Son of Man,’ not ‘a son of man.’
What do other Jewish writings say about the Son of Man?
They describe a preexistent Son of Man who will depose kings and sit upon the throne of glory.
True or False: Jesus believed in an end-time figure called the Son of Man who was different from Himself.
False
This interpretation is considered invalid as it contradicts authentic sayings of Jesus.
What does Jesus’ claim to ultimate authority imply about His self-understanding?
He put Himself in God’s place and did not expect another to judge the world.
What titles does Jesus affirm during His trial according to Mark 14:60-64?
The Messiah, the Son of God, and the coming Son of Man.
What does the high priest’s reaction to Jesus’ claims illustrate?
It shows the blending of diverse claims that exceed any single title taken out of context.
What has changed in scholarly skepticism about Jesus’ explicit claims?
It has receded as insight into first-century Palestinian Judaism has increased.
What do the titles ‘Messiah,’ ‘Son of God,’ and ‘Son of Man’ express about Jesus?
They express what Jesus implicitly conveyed through His teaching and behavior.
Fill in the blank: Jesus’ use of ‘the Son of Man’ helps prevent a premature _______ of His superhuman and messianic status.
revelation
What was the centerpiece of Jesus’ preaching?
The coming of the kingdom of God
Jesus’ ministry included miraculous healings and exorcisms as signs of this kingdom.
What did Jesus say about His twelve disciples’ role in the coming kingdom?
They will sit on twelve thrones, judging the twelve tribes of Israel
Reference: Matthew 19:28; Luke 22:28-30.
Who is the king over all of Israel according to Jesus’ teachings?
Jesus Himself.
What does Jesus’ messianic self-understanding imply?
He saw Himself as Israel’s royal Messiah.
How did Jesus express His authority in teaching?
By equating His authority with that of the divine law and adjusting the law on His own authority.
What is significant about Jesus’ teaching style compared to Jewish rabbis?
He did not quote other teachers but stated, ‘But I say to you…’
This astonished the crowds as He taught with authority.
What phrase did Jesus use to express His authority?
‘Truly, I say to you.’
What role did Jesus believe He had regarding demons?
He believed He had the power to cast out demons.
What did Jesus claim when casting out demons?
That the kingdom of God had come to them
Reference: Luke 11:20.
What does Jesus’ claim to forgive sins signify?
He assumed the prerogative to forgive sins, which is a divine authority.
How did Jesus demonstrate God’s forgiveness in His actions?
By inviting outcasts like prostitutes and tax collectors into fellowship with Him.
What did Jesus declare about people’s attitudes toward Him?
They will determine how God judges them on judgment day
Reference: Luke 12:8-9.
What radical self-concept did Jesus have?
He thought of Himself as the promised Messiah and God’s only Son.
What was the historical context for evaluating the evidence of Jesus’ resurrection?
His radical personal claims and activities, including His trial and crucifixion.
How did Jesus perform miracles differently from Jewish holy men?
He did not pray for miracles but performed them in His own name.
What is the consensus among New Testament scholars regarding Jesus’ miracles?
That Jesus did perform miracles with historical corroboration.
What did Jesus’ miracles signify?
They were signs of the inbreaking of the kingdom of God.
How did Jesus’ role as a judge manifest in His teachings?
He claimed that people’s eternal destiny hinged on their belief in Him.
Fill in the blank: Jesus believed Himself to be not only an exorcist but a _______.
miracle worker.
What is the central question addressed in Chapter 9?
Did Jesus rise from the dead?
This question is explored with historical evidence.
Who was the guest lecturer mentioned in the chapter?
Pinchas Lapide
A Canadian Jewish scholar who taught in Tel Aviv.
What did Lapide conclude about the resurrection of Jesus?
The best explanation of the evidence is that God raised Jesus from the dead.
This conclusion surprised the author.
What are the three independently established facts supporting the resurrection?
- Jesus’ empty tomb
- Jesus’ appearances alive after His death
- The origin of the disciples’ belief in His resurrection
What is the ‘resurrection hypothesis’?
God raised Jesus from the dead.
This hypothesis serves as the best explanation for the evidence.
What is the significance of Jesus’ resurrection?
It is God’s vindication of Jesus’ radical personal claims.
Jesus was condemned as a blasphemer.
What does the term ‘resurrection’ mean in the context of Jesus’ time?
The reversal of death, restoration to bodily immortality.
It does not mean life after death in a disembodied form.
What supports the fact of Jesus’ empty tomb?
The historical reliability of the story of Jesus’ burial.
If Jesus was buried, the tomb’s location was known, making it likely to be empty.
Why could the disciples not have believed in Jesus’ resurrection if His corpse was in the tomb?
It would have been un-Jewish and implausible.
The belief would not have flourished in Jerusalem.
What would the Jewish authorities have done if Jesus’ body was still in the tomb?
They would have exposed the resurrection claim by pointing to the tomb.
This indicates their concern about the early Christian movement.
What is one of the best-established facts about Jesus according to critics?
Jesus was buried by Joseph of Arimathea.
This fact is supported by multiple independent sources.
What does 1 Corinthians 15:3-5 indicate about Jesus’ burial?
It quotes an early Christian tradition mentioning Jesus’ burial.
This tradition dates back to within five years after Jesus’ death.
How many independent sources are there for the burial of Jesus?
At least five independent sources.
These include Mark, Matthew, Luke, John, and early sermons in Acts.
What was Joseph of Arimathea’s role in Jesus’ burial?
He was a member of the Jewish Sanhedrin who buried Jesus.
His actions are unlikely to be a Christian invention due to the hostility towards the Sanhedrin.
True or False: The burial of Jesus is considered one of the earliest and best-attested facts about Him.
True.
This statement is attributed to John A. T. Robinson.
What is the significance of the discovery of Jesus’ empty tomb?
It is independently reported in very early sources.
How does Mark’s passion source relate to the empty tomb story?
It likely ended with the women’s discovery of the empty tomb.
What grammatical and linguistic ties link the burial story and the empty tomb story?
They form a smooth, continuous narrative.
What does the phrase ‘he was buried’ followed by ‘he was raised’ imply?
The empty tomb.
Why is the expression ‘on the third day’ significant?
It likely refers to the day the women discovered the tomb empty.
How many independent accounts of the empty tomb do historians consider significant?
Six independent accounts.
What does Mark’s account of the empty tomb lack, indicating its simplicity?
Theological motifs and embellishments.
What does the account in the Gospel of Peter illustrate about legendary narratives?
They are often embellished with dramatic and theological elements.
Who were the principal witnesses to the empty tomb according to the gospels?
Women.
What was the societal view of women’s testimony in first-century Judaism?
Women were not regarded as credible witnesses.
What does the statement from Josephus about women’s testimony reveal?
A reflection of the patriarchal society of first-century Judaism.
How did rabbinical texts express the societal status of women?
They indicated women were viewed as second-class citizens.
What does the presence of women as witnesses to the empty tomb suggest about the authenticity of the story?
It suggests they actually discovered the empty tomb, as it would be unlikely for a legend to portray them as such.
Fill in the blank: The resurrection is not ______ in Mark’s account.
witnessed or described
True or False: The empty tomb story is considered a later legendary development.
False
What is the implication of the phrase ‘this Jesus God raised up’ in Acts?
It contrasts with the tomb of David, implying Jesus’ tomb was empty.
What does the simplicity of Mark’s account suggest about its historical reliability?
It likely reflects an authentic tradition rather than a later invention.
What presupposition is made by the earliest Jewish response to the resurrection of Jesus?
The empty tomb
The Jewish authorities did not deny the empty tomb but claimed the disciples stole the body.
What story is mentioned in Matthew’s gospel concerning the Jewish response to the resurrection?
The guard told chief priests the disciples stole Jesus’ body
This story has been spread among the Jews to this day (Matt. 28:11-15).
What percentage of scholars accepted the historicity of the discovery of Jesus’ empty tomb according to Gary Habermas?
75 percent
This finding is based on a survey of over 2,200 publications on the resurrection.
Who were some Jewish scholars convinced of the empty tomb’s historicity?
- Pinchas Lapide
- Geza Vermes
What does Paul claim in 1 Corinthians 15:3-8 regarding Jesus’ appearances?
Jesus appeared to several individuals after his resurrection
This includes appearances to Cephas, the Twelve, and over five hundred brethren.
What is significant about Paul’s list of eyewitnesses to Jesus’ resurrection?
It guarantees that the resurrection appearances occurred.
Who is the first individual mentioned in Paul’s list of resurrection appearances?
Peter
The appearance to Peter is supported by both Paul and Luke.
What is the significance of the appearance to the Twelve in the resurrection accounts?
It is the best-attested resurrection appearance of Jesus.
How does Paul support the occurrence of the appearance to over five hundred brethren?
He mentions that most were still alive to be questioned.
What does the criterion of embarrassment suggest about James’ belief in Jesus?
James did not believe in Jesus during His lifetime but became a believer after the resurrection.
What transformation did Saul of Tarsus undergo after encountering Jesus?
He became a Christian missionary after initially persecuting Christians.
What does the independent gospel accounts provide regarding postmortem appearances of Jesus?
Multiple, independent reports of Jesus’ resurrection appearances.
Which appearance is mentioned by both Paul and Luke?
The appearance to Peter.
What pattern do the resurrection appearances of Jesus follow?
Jerusalem, then Galilee, then Jerusalem again.
What conclusion can be drawn about the resurrection appearances according to skeptics like Gerd Lüdemann?
It is historically certain that Peter and the disciples had experiences of seeing Jesus as the risen Christ.
What does the Greek word ‘psychikos’ translate to in English?
‘Natural’ or ‘soul-ish’
It derives from the word ‘psyche,’ meaning ‘soul.’
What is the Greek word for ‘spiritual’ as used in 1 Corinthians?
‘Pneumatikos’
This term indicates being led by the Spirit.
What contrast does Paul make regarding bodies in 1 Corinthians 15:42-44?
- Mortal vs. Immortal
- Dishonorable vs. Glorious
- Weak vs. Powerful
- Natural vs. Spiritual
In the context of resurrection, what does ‘natural’ imply according to Paul?
Dominated by or pertaining to human nature
It does not mean made out of soul.
What does ‘spiritual’ suggest in relation to the resurrection body?
Dominated by or oriented toward the Spirit
It does not mean made out of spirit.
What distinction does Paul make between a vision and an appearance of Jesus?
A vision is purely in the mind; an appearance occurs in the external world.
How does Paul view his experience on the Damascus road?
As an appearance of Jesus
It involved external manifestations experienced by companions.
What does the unanimous testimony of the gospels indicate about resurrection appearances?
They were all physical, bodily appearances.
What is the significance of the belief in Jesus’ resurrection for the early Christian church?
It was universal and foundational for the faith.
What does the term ‘X’ refer to in the context of the origin of the Christian faith?
The mysterious factor that initiated the belief in Jesus’ resurrection.
What three points summarize the evidence for the resurrection?
- The tomb was found empty by women followers
- Various individuals and groups saw appearances of Jesus alive
- The origin of Christianity hinges on the belief in Jesus’ resurrection
What is the majority view of New Testament critics regarding the resurrection?
The empty tomb, postmortem appearances, and belief in resurrection are well-established facts.
What did the Jewish conception of the Messiah entail?
A triumphant figure who would not be executed as a criminal.
What did the crucifixion initially signify for Jesus’ disciples?
A disaster for their faith in Him as the Messiah.
How did the belief in the resurrection change the disciples’ view of Jesus?
It reinstated Him as the Messiah.
What are some of the historical details agreed upon by all four gospels regarding Jesus’ crucifixion?
- Jesus was crucified in Jerusalem
- He was buried by Joseph of Arimathea
- The tomb was found empty by female followers
- Jesus appeared alive to the disciples
True or False: The inconsistencies in gospel accounts undermine the case for Jesus’ resurrection.
False
Historians expect inconsistencies and do not dismiss sources based on them.
What philosophical objection do critics have regarding the physical nature of resurrection appearances?
They view such appearances as miracles that are hard to accept.
What is the first criterion for assessing competing hypotheses in historical analysis?
The best explanation will have greater explanatory scope than other explanations.
What does greater explanatory power mean in the context of historical hypotheses?
It will make the evidence more probable.
What does it mean for an explanation to be plausible?
It will fit better with true background beliefs.
What is meant by an explanation being less contrived?
It won’t require adopting as many new beliefs that have no independent evidence.
What does it mean for an explanation to be disconfirmed by fewer accepted beliefs?
It won’t conflict with as many accepted beliefs.
What is a key characteristic of the best explanation according to the criteria outlined?
It will meet conditions 1-5 so much better than the others that there’s little chance that one of the other explanations will do better.
What hypothesis suggests that the disciples stole Jesus’ body and lied about His resurrection?
Conspiracy Hypothesis.
How does the conspiracy hypothesis fare in terms of explanatory scope?
It meets this condition pretty well, explaining the empty tomb, postmortem appearances, and the origin of the disciples’ belief.
What is a significant issue with the explanatory power of the conspiracy hypothesis?
It fails to explain why the disciples would fabricate a story about women finding the tomb empty.
What is a critical flaw in the conspiracy hypothesis regarding the disciples’ belief?
It weakly explains the origin of the disciples’ belief in Jesus’ resurrection.
What is the primary problem with the plausibility of the conspiracy hypothesis?
It is anachronistic to suppose first-century Jews intended to hoax Jesus’ resurrection.
What were the disciples’ likely responses to Jesus’ predictions of His resurrection?
They thought He was talking about the resurrection at the end of the world.
What is the general Jewish conception of resurrection?
Resurrection occurs after the end of the world and is of all the righteous dead.
Fill in the blank: The conspiracy hypothesis is ________ in its assumptions about the disciples’ motivations.
[contrived]
What has modern scholarship concluded about the influence of pagan mythology on the belief in Jesus’ resurrection?
The parallels are false and do not provide a causal connection.
What is one reason scholars have abandoned the idea that pagan myths influenced the resurrection belief?
Jews found seasonal deities abhorrent and there are no traces of cults of dying and rising gods in first-century Israel.
What did scholars realize about the idea of a resurrection of an isolated individual in Jewish thought?
There was no belief in the resurrection of an isolated individual, especially of the Messiah.
True or False: The disciples could have plausibly believed in Jesus’ resurrection based on Jewish influences.
False.
What is one outcome of the conspiracy hypothesis’s failure to meet the outlined conditions?
No scholar would defend the conspiracy hypothesis today.
What is resurrection?
The raising up of a dead man in the space-time universe to glory and immortality.
What is assumption?
The taking of someone bodily out of this world into heaven.
What is revivification?
The return of a dead man to mortal life.
Which biblical event describes the assumption of Elijah?
Second Kings 2:1-12.
Which biblical event describes the revivification of Lazarus?
John 11:1-44.
What is the apparent death hypothesis?
The claim that Jesus was not completely dead when taken down from the cross and revived in the tomb.
What is one weakness of the apparent death hypothesis?
It fails to explain the empty tomb.
What is a significant difficulty for the apparent death hypothesis regarding postmortem appearances?
A half-dead man would not elicit the belief that he was the risen Lord.
True or False: The apparent death hypothesis is widely accepted among New Testament historians today.
False.
Who proposed the displaced body hypothesis?
Joseph Klausner in 1922.
What does the displaced body hypothesis suggest?
That Joseph of Arimathea temporarily placed Jesus’ body in his tomb before moving it to a common graveyard.
What is a major shortcoming of the displaced body hypothesis?
It has narrow explanatory scope and does not explain postmortem appearances.
What is the hallucination hypothesis?
The idea that the resurrection appearances were merely hallucinations experienced by the disciples.
Who is a prominent defender of the hallucination hypothesis today?
Gerd Lüdemann.
What is a weakness of the hallucination hypothesis regarding the empty tomb?
It does not explain the empty tomb.
How does the hallucination hypothesis fail to explain the origin of the disciples’ belief?
It does not account for their belief in Jesus’ resurrection.
What aspect of the resurrection appearances challenges the hallucination hypothesis?
The diversity of the appearances to various individuals and groups.
Fill in the blank: According to Jewish beliefs, assumption is the taking of someone bodily out of this world into _______.
[heaven].
What is one reason the hallucination hypothesis is considered implausible?
It relies on disputed theories of depth psychology.
True or False: Paul’s writings indicate he struggled with a guilt complex.
False.
What does the term ‘explanatory power’ refer to in the context of this text?
The ability of a hypothesis to adequately explain the evidence.
According to the text, what did Jewish burial practices typically involve?
Digging up the bones of the deceased a year later and placing them in an ossuary.
What is a key distinction between assumption and resurrection in the Jewish context?
Assumption is taking someone to heaven, while resurrection is raising a dead man in the space-time universe.
What does the term ‘explanatory scope’ refer to?
The range of phenomena a hypothesis can explain.
What is a major flaw in the apparent death hypothesis regarding the executioners?
Roman executioners could be relied upon to ensure that their victims were dead.
What is the significance of the empty tomb in the context of the resurrection?
It is a critical piece of evidence that needs to be explained by any viable hypothesis.
What does Paul try to achieve in his argument regarding the apostles’ experiences with Christ?
Paul aims to align his experience with the objectivity and reality of the apostles’ experiences, rather than reducing their experiences to mere visions.
This emphasizes the validity of the apostles’ encounters with Christ.
What is a major critique of the hallucination hypothesis?
The hallucination hypothesis is implausible due to its psychoanalysis of the witnesses and its reduction of their experiences to visionary experiences.
This highlights the complexity of the witnesses’ experiences and challenges simplistic explanations.
What is Lüdemann’s version of the hallucination hypothesis criticized for?
Lüdemann’s version is criticized for being contrived and making several assumptions about the disciples’ behavior and experiences.
These assumptions include the idea that the disciples fled to Galilee after Jesus’ arrest and that Peter’s guilt led to hallucinations.
List some accepted beliefs that disconfirm the hallucination hypothesis.
- Jesus was laid in a tomb by Joseph of Arimathea
- Jesus’ tomb was discovered empty by women
- Psychoanalysis of historical figures is not feasible
- Paul was content with his life under the Jewish law
- The New Testament distinguishes between mere visions and resurrection appearances
These beliefs challenge the validity of the hallucination hypothesis.
True or False: The hallucination hypothesis is considered the most viable explanation compared to naturalistic rivals.
True
Despite its critiques, the hallucination hypothesis remains a viable option in discussions about resurrection.
What does the hallucination hypothesis struggle to account for?
It struggles to account for the objective nature of the resurrection appearances as described in the New Testament.
This indicates a significant gap in the hypothesis’s explanatory power.
Fill in the blank: The hallucination hypothesis is characterized by a reduction of resurrection appearances to _______.
[visionary experiences]
This reduction undermines the unique claims of the resurrection.
What is one of the key conditions that the hallucination hypothesis must fulfill?
It must be consistent with accepted historical beliefs about the resurrection events.
This condition is crucial for its acceptance among scholars.
What is the primary hypothesis discussed regarding Jesus’ resurrection?
God raised Jesus from the dead
This hypothesis is evaluated against various criteria.
What does ‘explanatory scope’ refer to in the context of the resurrection hypothesis?
The ability to explain all three main facts: the empty tomb, resurrection appearances, and the origin of the disciples’ faith
Rival hypotheses like hallucination or displaced body explain only one of these.
Why is the explanatory power considered a strength of the resurrection hypothesis?
It convincingly accounts for the evidence, making it probable that the tomb is empty, the disciples saw Jesus alive, and they believed in His resurrection
Other theories like conspiracy or apparent death do not account for this evidence effectively.
How does the historical context affect the plausibility of the resurrection hypothesis?
It grows exponentially due to Jesus’ unparalleled life and radical personal claims, alongside evidence for God’s existence
If one believes in God, the resurrection hypothesis becomes more plausible compared to naturalistic explanations.
What is meant by the term ‘contrived’ in relation to the resurrection hypothesis?
It refers to how many new suppositions a hypothesis must make that are not implied by existing knowledge
The resurrection hypothesis requires only one new supposition: that God exists.
What is a criticism of the resurrection hypothesis regarding its contrivance?
Some scholars argue it introduces an air of artificiality by appealing to God as an explanation
However, the hypothesis is not considered excessively contrived when placed in the context of Jesus’ life.
What accepted belief does not disconfirm the resurrection hypothesis?
‘Dead men do not rise’ does not disconfirm it, as it can coexist with the belief that God raised Jesus from the dead
This contrasts with rival theories that are disconfirmed by accepted beliefs.
What conclusion does the evidence surrounding the empty tomb, resurrection appearances, and origin of Christian faith lead to?
That God raised Jesus from the dead
This conclusion is supported by the historical reliability of the evidence.
Who discovered Jesus’ tomb empty?
A group of His women followers
This event is significant for its historical reliability and early reporting.
What does the term ‘explanatory power’ imply about a hypothesis?
Its ability to convincingly account for the evidence and facts at hand
This is a key criterion for assessing the strength of a hypothesis.
What is one aspect that the rival theories fail to account for regarding the disciples’ belief?
The disciples came to sincerely believe in Jesus’ resurrection despite predispositions to the contrary
This includes cultural and religious expectations of the time.
Fill in the blank: The resurrection appearances were _______.
physical, bodily appearances
This is supported by multiple independent reports in the gospel accounts.
What is the significance of Paul’s list of eyewitnesses?
It guarantees that appearances of Jesus after His resurrection occurred
This list contributes to the evidence for the resurrection.
List three rival explanations that do not fare well against the resurrection hypothesis.
- Conspiracy theory
- Apparent death theory
- Hallucination theory
These theories fail to adequately explain the evidence when assessed by standard criteria.
What is the view of Particularism in religion?
Only one religion is a means of salvation.
What does Pluralism in religion assert?
Many religions are means of salvation.
According to Acts 4:12, what is necessary for salvation?
There is no other name under heaven given among men by which we must be saved.
What is a common attitude in Western culture regarding God and Jesus?
It has become politically incorrect to claim that God has revealed Himself decisively in Jesus.
In Ephesians 2:12, what condition does Paul describe for Gentile converts before knowing Christ?
They were without Christ, aliens from the commonwealth of Israel, and strangers to the covenants of promise.
What does Romans 1:20 say about God’s power and deity?
They are made known through the created order around us, so that all men are without excuse.
According to Romans 2:15, what has God written upon all men’s hearts?
His moral law.
What is the general condition of mankind as explained by Paul?
All men are under the power of sin.
What does Romans 3:19-20 state about redeeming oneself?
No one can redeem himself by means of righteous living.
What is the means of escape provided by God according to Romans 3:21-26?
Jesus Christ has died for the sins of mankind.
What does the New Testament teach about salvation and Christ?
There is no salvation apart from Christ.
Who was Perpetua and what was her fate?
A young mother arrested for refusing to acknowledge other gods besides Christ, sentenced to be torn to pieces by wild animals.
What was the reaction to the particularistic doctrine of salvation through Christ alone in the Roman Empire?
It was seen as scandalous and led to persecution of early Christians.
What historical period contributed to the demise of the traditional doctrine of salvation through Christ alone?
The Expansion of Europe from about 1450 until 1750.
What realization came from the exploration and discovery during the Expansion of Europe?
Much of the world’s population lay outside the bounds of Christianity.
How did the Enlightenment rationalists like Voltaire challenge Christianity?
They questioned the fate of those who had not heard of Christ, suggesting it was cruel to condemn them.
What has heightened awareness of religious diversity in contemporary society?
The influx of immigrants and advances in telecommunications.
What is the conventional wisdom regarding religious beliefs today?
Religious pluralism—the view that there are many roads to God.
What is the central challenge posed by religious diversity to Christian particularists?
The implication that pluralism is true and questioning the validity of Christian particularism.
Who wrote the poem Inferno that depicts hell?
Dante Alighieri
What is the main belief illustrated in Dante’s depiction of hell?
The punishment for the sin is the sin itself
How is Satan depicted in Dante’s Inferno?
Encased chest-high in ice, with batlike wings flapping
What does Satan’s flapping wings represent?
His will to be equal to God on his own terms
What logical fallacy is illustrated by the argument that religious particularism is immoral?
Argument ad Hominem
What does the argument ad Hominem attempt to do?
Invalidate a position by attacking the character of those who hold it
According to the text, does the character of a person affect the truth of their claims?
No, the truth of a position is independent of the moral character of those who believe it
What is the genetic fallacy?
Invalidating a position by criticizing the way a person came to hold that position
Why is the genetic fallacy considered flawed?
It doesn’t relate to the truth of beliefs
What is the main problem with Christian particularism raised in the text?
The fate of unbelievers outside of one’s own religious tradition
What does Christian particularism imply about people outside the faith?
They are consigned to hell
What did John Hick conclude about good people outside Christianity?
He found it inconceivable that such good people should be on their way to hell
What is one argument against the idea that a loving God would send people to hell?
God desires all men to be saved
What biblical verse expresses God’s desire for salvation?
2 Peter 3:9
According to the text, who sends people to hell?
People send themselves by rejecting God’s offer of salvation
What is the pluralist’s objection to eternal punishment in hell?
It is unjust for the punishment not to fit the crime
How does the text argue against the idea that all sins deserve only finite punishment?
The continuation of sinning in hell leads to infinite punishment
What is the significance of rejecting Christ according to the text?
It is a sin of infinite gravity and proportion
What does the text suggest about the judgment of those uninformed about Christ?
They are judged based on the light of God’s general revelation
What does general revelation refer to?
God’s existence and power revealed in nature
What is the difference between general and special revelation?
General revelation is more widely available and less detailed than special revelation
What dilemma does the text present regarding God’s knowledge of who will accept the gospel?
Why didn’t God bring the gospel to those who would accept it?
What example is used to illustrate the problem of general revelation?
Walking Bear, a North American Indian before Christian missionaries
How does the text describe hell in relation to self-condemnation?
Hell is self-perpetuating due to continued rejection of God
What is the distinction between general revelation and special revelation?
General revelation is more general in availability and information, while special revelation is specific to certain people at certain times.
General revelation includes God’s existence and power revealed in nature, whereas special revelation includes God’s Word and Jesus Christ.
What is revealed through general revelation?
God’s existence and power, and His fundamental moral law.
This moral law is instinctively grasped by persons everywhere at all times.
How does God specially reveal Himself?
Through His Word and supremely through Jesus Christ.
Special revelation is directed towards specific individuals at certain points in history.
What question arises regarding God’s judgment for those who experience general revelation but not special revelation?
How will God judge those who have not known His special revelation despite experiencing general revelation?
This raises concerns about justice and fairness in salvation.
What dilemma does the example of Walking Bear illustrate?
His salvation or damnation seems to be the result of bad luck due to historical and geographical circumstances.
This challenges the notion of an all-loving God allowing eternal destiny to hinge on such accidents.
What fundamental question is posed about God’s decision to create the world?
Why did God create a world in which many would not believe the gospel and be lost?
This question addresses the nature of God’s free act of creation.
What is the radical question regarding the possibility of creation?
Why didn’t God create a world where everyone freely believes the gospel and is saved?
This suggests an exploration of free will and divine omnipotence.
Does Christianity portray God as cruel and unloving due to these questions?
This is a significant concern that needs to be addressed in Christian theology.
It raises theological implications about God’s nature and the problem of evil.
What is the main claim of the pluralist regarding God’s attributes?
It is impossible for God to be all-powerful and all-loving while some people never hear the gospel and are lost.
What are the two statements that the pluralist claims are logically inconsistent?
- God is all-powerful and all-loving.
- Some people never hear the gospel and are lost.
What hidden premises does the pluralist assume to argue the inconsistency of God’s attributes?
- If God is all-powerful, He can create a world in which everybody hears the gospel and is freely saved.
- If God is all-loving, He prefers a world in which everybody hears the gospel and is freely saved.
What does the author argue about the feasibility of creating a world where everyone is freely saved?
There is no guarantee that in a world where everyone hears the gospel, everyone would freely accept it.
True or False: The author believes that being all-powerful means being able to do the logically impossible.
False
What does the author suggest about God’s preference for worlds with universal salvation?
God may prefer a more populous world, even if it includes some people who are lost.
What is the doctrine of providence?
The doctrine that God orders events in history so that His purposes are achieved while respecting human freedom.
According to the author, what is possible regarding the balance between saved and lost individuals?
God has created a world that has an optimal balance between saved and lost.
Fill in the blank: God in His providence has so arranged the world that those who would respond to the gospel if they heard it, _______.
do hear it.
What does the author argue about those who never hear the gospel?
They would not have believed it even if they had heard it.
How does the author respond to the question of why God didn’t create a world where everyone is saved?
It may not be feasible for God to create such a world due to human free will.
What does the author suggest about the happiness of those who accept God’s love?
The happiness of those who embrace God’s love should not be precluded by those who reject it.
What is the author’s conclusion regarding the logical consistency of Christian particularism?
Pluralists haven’t shown any logical inconsistency; Christian particularism is logically coherent.
What is the author’s view on Christian missions?
It is the duty of Christians to proclaim the gospel, trusting that God has ordered things so that those who would accept it will hear it.
True or False: The author believes that compassion toward those in other religions means denying their lost status without Christ.
False
What does Acts 17:24-28 emphasize according to the author?
God has determined the times and places where people live so they might seek Him.
What is the author’s stance on the probability of people who never hear the gospel being saved if they had heard it?
It is improbable that those who never hear the gospel would have believed it even if they had heard it.
What should Christians do in light of the teachings discussed in the text?
Review the material, memorize the arguments, and share the message of Christ with others.
