Elements Of Apologetics Flashcards

Question

What metaphor does Job use to describe defending the weak?

Answer 1

I broke the jaws of the wicked and snatched the prey from his teeth.

Answer 2

They must step in and help.

Answer 3

Believers should be ready to make a defense for their hope with gentleness and reverence.

Answer 4

They should not worry about how or what to speak in their defense, as the Holy Spirit will teach them.

Answer 5

Maintain a good conscience and give a reasoned defense of their beliefs.

Answer 6

The book of Acts.

Answer 7

He spoke with wisdom and the Spirit, which his opponents could not cope with.

Answer 8

It emphasizes taking every thought captive to the obedience of Christ.

Answer 9

He referred to his appointment for the defense of the gospel.

Answer 10

Exhort in sound doctrine and refute those who contradict.

Answer 11

In the synagogue and the marketplace.

Answer 12

It relates to the defense and confirmation of the gospel.

Answer 13

[defend themselves]

Answer 14

It indicates a deep commitment to Christ that underpins the believer's defense.

Answer 15

An accurate description of reality ## Footnote Truth is defined in relation to the correspondence theory, which asserts that a statement is true if it corresponds to reality.

Answer 16

A theory stating that a statement is true if it corresponds to reality ## Footnote This perspective emphasizes that truth is non-negotiable and essential for Christian beliefs.

Answer 17

What is there ## Footnote The term 'objective reality' is used to clarify that the identity of an object is inherent to it, not dependent on the observer.

Answer 18

Truth is an accurate description of reality; knowledge is a personal claim to such reality.

Answer 19

How a truth claim is justified ## Footnote Knowledge is an epistemological concept, contrasting with truth's metaphysical nature.

Answer 20

Any statement that provides a claim to truth.

Answer 21

More than merely a truthful claim; it requires justification.

Answer 22

Justified true belief.

Answer 23

To avoid worldly and empty chatter and arguments falsely called 'knowledge'.

Answer 24

external reality.

Answer 25

The identity of an object depends upon its intrinsic essence.

Answer 26

To have a basis for asserting that the claim is accurate.

Answer 27

It is essential for maintaining the integrity of Christian beliefs.

Answer 28

When it conforms to external reality.

Answer 29

Minds may be knowing or ignorant; propositions may be true or false; objects may be real or imaginary.

Answer 30

Acquiring knowledge through correspondence between observation and stored awareness ## Footnote This method asserts that if an observation matches the stored awareness of what it is, it is considered knowledge.

Answer 31

By matching perception with external reality ## Footnote An example is claiming 'the baseball is in the yard' based on visual confirmation.

Answer 32

A belief that is true and can be justified through evidence or observation ## Footnote This definition was challenged by Edmund Gettier, who presented scenarios where beliefs were justified but not knowledge.

Answer 33

An American philosopher known for the 'Gettier Problem,' challenging the 'justified true belief' definition of knowledge ## Footnote Gettier's work in 1963 demonstrated that justified true beliefs could be true for reasons unrelated to the justification.

Answer 34

Examples of justified true beliefs that do not constitute knowledge due to flawed justification ## Footnote Illustrations like 'A Cow in a Field' show how true beliefs can arise from misleading observations.

Answer 35

A reliance on observation and the senses to acquire knowledge ## Footnote This approach emphasizes the importance of sensory experience in forming truth claims.

Answer 36

A method of confirming knowledge by compiling multiple observations from different perspectives ## Footnote Induction helps improve the reliability of correspondent claims by comparing observations.

Answer 37

His claim was based on a narrow observation that was true by coincidence, not by proper justification ## Footnote Farmer Field saw a shape that resembled Daisy, but it was actually a piece of paper.

Answer 38

It represents the best temporary understanding based on current observations, subject to change with new evidence ## Footnote Scientific conclusions are often provisional as they rely on accumulated data.

Answer 39

[empirical approach]

Answer 40

False ## Footnote Inductive reasoning leads to probabilistic conclusions, not certainties.

Answer 41

'Truth is what endless corroborating observations will yield.' ## Footnote This definition emphasizes the reliance on continuous observation to establish what is true.

Answer 42

It implies that future observations could potentially invalidate current claims.

Answer 43

It is cataloged within a vast network in memory that fits with the layout of existence.

Answer 44

All truths cohere with one another as expressions of God's harmonious objective reality.

Answer 45

A proposition can be justified if it fits with all other propositions already deemed true.

Answer 46

Coherence seeks what makes sense, while correspondence seeks what matches.

Answer 47

The analogy of a crossword puzzle, where words must fit together.

Answer 48

When joined by valid inference to propositions that are true and certain.

Answer 49

Coherence is a theory of knowledge, not of truth.

Answer 50

It is a necessary condition of its truth but not a sufficient condition.

Answer 51

It defines truth as correspondence and coherence as a necessary, but not sufficient, test of truth.

Answer 52

The methodology of deduction.

Answer 53

It begins with unquestionable premises and uses valid arguments to derive truth.

Answer 54

It seeks to determine if a claim fits within the broader context of reality.

Answer 55

To generate truth claims.

Answer 56

Yes, as demonstrated by Einstein's thought experiments.

Answer 57

Correspondence and coherence.

Answer 58

Induction.

Answer 59

Deduction.

Answer 60

Uncovering general principles that can accommodate particular truth claims.

Answer 61

Coherence within its features is necessary for its truthfulness.

Answer 62

Is our faith reasonable? ## Footnote This question is rooted in the belief that the unexamined faith is not worth believing.

Answer 63

Aristotle and Thomas Aquinas. ## Footnote Their thoughts form the foundation of the Classical apologetic approach.

Answer 64

1. Use philosophical arguments to indicate the existence of a creator. 2. Use historical arguments to verify Christian truth claims.

Answer 65

A prelude to other evidences. ## Footnote This step prepares for the presentation of specific miraculous truths.

Answer 66

I am not yet within a hundred miles of the God of Christian theology.

Answer 67

God is there.

Answer 68

He first targeted the creation before mentioning Jesus.

Answer 69

Deductive arguments positing an indubitable feature of existence as a premise to conclude God's existence.

Answer 70

1. The Law of Identity. 2. The Law of Non-Contradiction. 3. The Law of the Excluded Middle.

Answer 71

A is not non-A.

Answer 72

Either A or non-A.

Answer 73

God never behaves illogically in the proper sense.

Answer 74

God has revealed Himself in nature and conscience.

Answer 75

Logic to derive rational arguments from God's existence.

Answer 76

The glory of God.

Answer 77

His invisible attributes, eternal power, and divine nature have been clearly seen.

Answer 78

Emphasizing coherent forms within the cosmos and the laws of logic.

Answer 79

Paul noted the Athenians were 'very religious' to build a bridge.

Answer 80

The contribution of Thomas Aquinas and Aristotle

Answer 81

Arguments for the existence of God from change, efficient cause, possibility and necessity, gradation, and governance

Answer 82

The argument from change; everything that is changed is changed by something else, leading to a first cause of change which is God

Answer 83

The nature of an efficient cause; nothing can be the efficient cause of itself, leading to a first efficient cause, which is God

Answer 84

The nature of possibility and necessity; there must be something necessary in itself to account for the existence of contingent beings, which is God

Answer 85

The gradation of things; there is a greatest being that is the source of all that is good, true, and noble, which is God

Answer 86

The governance of things; natural bodies work towards an end by design, implying the existence of an intelligent being, which is God

Answer 87

* Move * Efficient * Necessary * Greatest * Purpose

Answer 88

They do not necessarily identify the God of the Bible, only a generic instigator or deity

Answer 89

1. There is no evidence that God exists. 2. If there is no evidence, then it is irrational to believe that He does. 3. Therefore, it is irrational to believe that God exists.

Answer 90

Agreement on the need for evidence for God's existence

Answer 91

To challenge Premise 1 regarding the evidence for God's existence

Answer 92

1. Ontological 2. Anthropological 3. Moral 4. Cosmological 5. Teleological ## Footnote These categories help to conclude God's existence by examining the nature of God, man, and physical existence.

Answer 93

God's uniqueness ## Footnote This argument questions whether there is something about our conception of God that confirms His existence.

Answer 94

Human morality and immateriality ## Footnote This argument explores whether our realization of human immateriality demonstrates God's existence.

Answer 95

Does our moral awareness demonstrate a moral standard that requires God's existence? ## Footnote This argument posits that a viable moral standard can only exist if God exists.

Answer 96

Natural contingencies ## Footnote This argument questions whether our awareness of natural contingencies indicates the existence of God.

Answer 97

Natural specificities ## Footnote This argument asks whether awareness of natural specificities indicates the existence of God.

Answer 98

It is related to Aquinas' 4th way dealing with graduated greatness ## Footnote This connection helps to ground the ontological argument in classical philosophical thought.

Answer 99

Naturalism cannot give us the entire picture of humanness ## Footnote This argument emphasizes the limitations of naturalism in explaining human immateriality.

Answer 100

It is related to Aquinas' 3rd way dealing with necessity and contingency ## Footnote This connection provides a philosophical basis for the cosmological argument.

Answer 101

Aquinas' 5th way dealing with purpose ## Footnote This relationship highlights the purpose-driven aspect of the teleological argument.

Answer 102

False ## Footnote The moral argument posits that moral standards require God's existence to be viable.

Answer 103

The Ontological Argument claims that proper reasoning about the idea of a Perfect Being generates the conclusion that God exists. ## Footnote It reasons apart from any phenomenon of existence.

Answer 104

Anselm of Canterbury ## Footnote Anselm's work 'Proslogion' was written around 1079.

Answer 105

God is 'that than which no greater thing can be conceived.' ## Footnote This definition implies that any attributes assigned to entities find their maximum expression in God.

Answer 106

The nature of 'being.'

Answer 107

1. God is 'that than which nothing greater can be conceived.' 2. Existence is greater than nonexistence. 3. Therefore, God exists.

Answer 108

The analogy of a painter conceiving a painting. ## Footnote The painter has an idea in understanding before creating the actual painting.

Answer 109

Existence is an attribute that is greater than nonexistence.

Answer 110

God cannot be conceived not to exist. ## Footnote This version introduces the concepts of necessity and contingency.

Answer 111

A being that does not depend upon anything outside of itself for existence.

Answer 112

Attributes that provide a status for the possessor that transcends the features of a lesser entity.

Answer 113

He used a reductio ad absurdum with the example of a perfect island to challenge the argument. ## Footnote This example posits that the existence of a perfect island could be argued similarly to God's existence.

Answer 114

A being whose existence depends upon outside circumstances.

Answer 115

Gaunilo inserted a contingent entity, while Anselm's argument requires a necessary being.

Answer 116

The concept of a Perfect Being is not impossible, since it is neither nonsensical nor self-contradictory.

Answer 117

It supports the conclusion that if God is the greatest conceivable being, then He must exist.

Answer 118

A personal being is an agent who brings about states of affairs according to his thoughts and designs.

Answer 119

maximally great being.

Answer 120

It cannot be contingent and must possess all qualities that are better to have.

Answer 121

A triune being is greater than a unitarian being.

Answer 122

René Descartes ## Footnote Descartes is known for reformulating the ontological argument for the existence of God.

Answer 123

Existence is a perfection of God ## Footnote Descartes argues that it is absurd to think of a perfect being lacking existence.

Answer 124

* God is a supremely perfect being. * A property of perfection is existence. * Therefore, God must exist.

Answer 125

Valleys imply ridges ## Footnote Descartes suggests that just as valleys and ridges are interconnected, so too are existence and the essence of God.

Answer 126

Existence cannot be a predicate ## Footnote Kant argues that saying something exists does not add any meaningful information about that thing.

Answer 127

Part of a sentence that gives added information about the subject ## Footnote For example, in 'John is tall,' 'is tall' is the predicate.

Answer 128

There is no substantive difference ## Footnote Kant believes that existence does not add any new information to the concept of John.

Answer 129

Imagining a pile of 100 thalers ## Footnote Kant questions what is added by specifying that the coins exist.

Answer 130

Existing items are in the actual world, while non-existing items are in a possible world ## Footnote This distinction shows that existence can be informative depending on the context.

Answer 131

A world that does not exist but could exist ## Footnote This concept helps differentiate between actual and hypothetical existence.

Answer 132

Actuality, possibility, impossibility, contingency, necessity ## Footnote These modes are common predicates in modal logic.

Answer 133

Alvin Plantinga ## Footnote Plantinga is a Christian philosopher recognized for this adaptation.

Answer 134

What could have happened instead of our actual world ## Footnote It includes entities that could exist in a world like ours.

Answer 135

An infinite number ## Footnote Possible worlds do not exist; they are imaginative scenarios.

Answer 136

Possible worlds do not actually exist; multiverse theory posits actual alternate worlds ## Footnote Possible worlds are imaginative constructs.

Answer 137

If God exists in some possible worlds, then God exists in all possible worlds ## Footnote This leads to the conclusion that if God exists in all possible worlds, He exists in the actual world.

Answer 138

Premise three ## Footnote It states that if God exists in some possible worlds, then He exists in all possible worlds.

Answer 139

Maximally Great Being ## Footnote This substitution helps clarify the necessity involved in the argument.

Answer 140

It must exist in all possible worlds ## Footnote This is based on the definition of a necessary entity.

Answer 141

'What is the contradiction that makes it not possible?' ## Footnote This challenges the assertion and seeks clarification.

Answer 142

They reject its merit ## Footnote Some view it as a philosophical trick and argue against defining God into existence.

Answer 143

'Isn't it your definition of God that makes His nonexistence absurd?' ## Footnote This question challenges the logic of the definition itself.

Answer 144

actuality, possibility ## Footnote These concepts are integral to the argument's reasoning.

Answer 145

False ## Footnote Possible worlds are theoretical constructs, not actual entities.

Answer 146

The problem of evil questions how a maximally great being (God) can be omnipotent and omnibenevolent while evil exists. ## Footnote This is often framed through the inconsistent triad of God's omnipotence, omnibenevolence, and the existence of evil.

Answer 147

* God is omnipotent (maximally powerful) * God is omnibenevolent (maximally good) * Evil exists

Answer 148

An inconsistent triad is a set of three propositions where at most only two can be consistently true at the same time.

Answer 149

A theodicy is an attempt to vindicate divine goodness and providence in light of the existence of evil.

Answer 150

Skeptics argue that the existence of evil is incompatible with the notion of an all-powerful and all-loving God.

Answer 151

Believers can ask for clarification on the meaning of terms like 'all powerful,' 'all loving,' and 'evil' to engage skeptics.

Answer 152

Jesus responded by asking them a question that challenged their reasoning and precommitments.

Answer 153

Apologists can dismiss the argument by asking for a definition of evil, questioning the basis of the skeptic's claims.

Answer 154

It indicates that atheists, when consistent with their worldview, do not have a problem with evil as they lack an absolute standard for good and evil.

Answer 155

[Christianity]

Answer 156

They argue that the outrage at evil suggests awareness of a standard of goodness, implying proof of God's existence.

Answer 157

Apologetics defends the faith from outside attacks and encourages believers in the veracity of their faith.

Answer 158

The skeptic claims that if God is maximally good, there should be no evil and suffering.

Answer 159

It posits that a world with evil and free agency is better than one without evil and free agency.

Answer 160

They argue that without free will, all moral meaning disappears from language and life.

Answer 161

It claims that evil plus freedom is a greater good than no evil plus no freedom.

Answer 162

It does not address natural disasters or suffering from genetic disorders.

Answer 163

He proposed that the inclusion of evil is necessary for God's wisdom to bring about His good plan.

Answer 164

Because all possibilities in God's understanding claim existence in proportion to their perfections.

Answer 165

Keller suggests that the world is greater for having been broken, and Lewis states heaven will turn agony into glory.

Answer 166

It states that God cannot be tempted with evil and does not tempt anyone.

Answer 167

They distinguished between what God decrees (wills) and what He ordains (allows).

Answer 168

Suffering comprises the reception of bad things, while evil comprises the doer of bad things.

Answer 169

He argues that eliminating suffering would make the world intolerable.

Answer 170

For those who believe in an afterlife, suffering can become a vital experience for good.

Answer 171

[love God]

Answer 172

It suggests that the strong should bear the weaknesses of the weak.

Answer 173

It questions how the observed evil could be the best pathway for good purposes.

Answer 174

He uses the analogy of 'God in the dock,' implying that sinners place God on trial.

Answer 175

It can prompt the activity of helping one another.

Answer 176

If one member suffers, all the members suffer with it.

Answer 177

It refers to how suffering can lead to personal growth and humility.

Answer 178

It states that affliction can help one learn God's statutes.

Answer 179

Job tried to place God in the dock and demanded an explanation for His dealings ## Footnote Job expressed a desire to present his case and fill his mouth with arguments against God.

Answer 180

Where were you when I laid the foundation of the earth? ## Footnote This highlights Job's ignorance of God's omnipotent actions.

Answer 181

I will have mercy on whom I have mercy ## Footnote This indicates God's sovereignty in dispensing mercy.

Answer 182

Job acknowledges his insignificance and refrains from further argument ## Footnote Job lays his hand on his mouth and admits he has spoken too much.

Answer 183

God is like a potter and humanity is like clay ## Footnote This emphasizes God's authority over creation.

Answer 184

The thing molded will not say to the molder, 'Why did you make me like this?' ## Footnote This illustrates the relationship and authority of God over humanity.

Answer 185

1) God is omnipotent and omniscient. 2) God is omnibenevolent. 3) There is objective evil. 4) For any evil that God allows, God has a morally sufficient reason for allowing this evil. ## Footnote This fourth proposition reconciles God’s nature with the existence of evil.

Answer 186

Everything God does reflects his wisdom, but he is under no obligation to give us his reasons ## Footnote This implies that God's actions may remain a mystery.

Answer 187

You turn things around! Shall the potter be considered as equal with the clay? ## Footnote This indicates that humanity should not question God's authority.

Answer 188

Scripture never assumes that God owes us an explanation for what he does ## Footnote This emphasizes God's sovereignty and the mystery of His intentions.

Answer 189

His greatness is unsearchable ## Footnote This reinforces the idea that God's reasons may be beyond human comprehension.

Answer 190

Possessing unlimited power ## Footnote The term refers to a being that can do anything that is logically possible.

Answer 191

A philosophical dilemma about whether an omnipotent being can create a stone too heavy for itself to lift ## Footnote This paradox raises questions about the nature of power and freedom.

Answer 192

God is considered 'from Himself', meaning His actions depend solely on His nature ## Footnote This concept highlights God's independence from external influences.

Answer 193

No, He cannot deny Himself ## Footnote This underscores the idea that God's actions are consistent with His nature.

Answer 194

God is omnipotent, evil exists, and God wills evil to exist for His good reason ## Footnote This argument addresses the problem of evil within the context of divine sovereignty.

Answer 195

An author who suggested that God is powerless to stop evil ## Footnote In 'Why Bad Things Happen to Good People', he argues that God's love limits His power.

Answer 196

If we sacrifice God's sovereignty, we sacrifice everything ## Footnote Piper argues that God’s governance of evil is crucial for hope.

Answer 197

Suffering becomes destructive in a materialist context ## Footnote This perspective lacks the framework to find meaning in suffering.

Answer 198

Even though I walk through the valley of the shadow of death, I fear no evil, for You are with me ## Footnote This verse emphasizes God's presence during suffering.

Answer 199

The removal of suffering and evil in the afterlife ## Footnote Revelation 21:4 speaks of a future without pain or sorrow.

Answer 200

* God is sovereign * Evil exists * God wills evil to exist for His good reason

Answer 201

He is unique and who can turn Him? What His soul desires, that He does ## Footnote This underscores God's ultimate authority.

Answer 202

It states that both good and ill come forth from the Lord ## Footnote This reflects God's control over all events.

Answer 203

God permits evil to exist because He can bring good out of it ## Footnote This concept is discussed in Augustine's 'Enchiridion on Faith, Hope, and Love'.

Answer 204

It was delivered over by the predetermined plan and foreknowledge of God ## Footnote This illustrates the concept of divine sovereignty even in evil actions.

Answer 205

True ## Footnote God is holy and cannot act against His nature.

Answer 206

Stand back in awe regarding the magnitude of God's glory ## Footnote It invites a deeper appreciation of God's sovereignty.

Answer 207

Certain aspects of human nature to the existence of God ## Footnote The argument considers immaterial attributes and moral awareness

Answer 208

1. Immaterial attributes of humanness 2. Moral awareness

Answer 209

No, as our nature is a strict continuum from previous organisms

Answer 210

Principle of Sufficient Reason (PSR)

Answer 211

There is something special about our makeup that separates us from animals

Answer 212

The relationship between the cerebral mechanisms of the brain and conscious thought in the mind

Answer 213

All conscious thought can be reduced to the mechanisms of a material brain

Answer 214

It arises from an immaterial soul that governs the brain

Answer 215

Whether the soul is identical to the brain based on Leibniz's Law of the Indiscernibility of Identicals

Answer 216

Their properties should be indiscernible

Answer 217

1. Consciousness 2. Abstraction 3. Free agency

Answer 218

The human ability of awareness

Answer 219

The human ability to symbolically represent items within conscious awareness

Answer 220

The human ability to respond to items of conscious awareness in a non-deterministic manner

Answer 221

meaning and purpose in the world

Answer 222

An acknowledgment of the special nature of human makeup

Answer 223

An organism's awareness of its environment ## Footnote This awareness is linked to the concept of sentience.

Answer 224

The Latin term 'sentire' meaning 'to feel' ## Footnote Sentient organisms can experience qualia such as pain and pleasure.

Answer 225

Phenomena like pain, pleasure, or redness that are subjective experiences ## Footnote Qualia are not reducible to material states.

Answer 226

The mystery of how neural activity gives rise to subjective experience ## Footnote This problem highlights the difficulty in explaining subjective perception.

Answer 227

A British philosopher known for new mysterianism, arguing that we cannot understand the causal basis of subjective conscious awareness ## Footnote McGinn emphasizes the limits of human understanding regarding consciousness.

Answer 228

The inability for others to access one's thoughts through physical means ## Footnote Thoughts cannot be directly uncovered or measured.

Answer 229

A recognition of an organism's subjective experience of the world ## Footnote This concept is notably discussed in Thomas Nagel's 1974 paper.

Answer 230

Qualia cannot be numerically tabulated as physical properties can ## Footnote Emotions and thoughts are distinct from measurable physical states.

Answer 231

The directedness of the mind towards an object, or the 'of-ness' and 'about-ness' of thoughts ## Footnote This concept has roots in the work of Franz Brentano.

Answer 232

Awareness regarding oneself and one's experiences ## Footnote It includes both pre-reflective and reflective forms of consciousness.

Answer 233

Mental activities require something outside themselves for their existence, while physical objects do not ## Footnote This touches on the self-existence argument.

Answer 234

It indicates a sense of unity and separateness from physical identity ## Footnote The use of 'I' reflects a distinction from the body.

Answer 235

Physical things change and depend on parts for identity, while the soul remains unchanged ## Footnote This suggests that consciousness cannot be purely physical.

Answer 236

The ability to categorize items of awareness under general names ## Footnote This is a key attribute that sets humans apart from other animals.

Answer 237

Humans can mentally dissect the world into discrete symbols and hypothesize alternate possibilities ## Footnote This cognitive ability is qualitatively different from that of other animals.

Answer 238

They lack the power of abstraction ## Footnote This limits their ability to contemplate abstract concepts like truth or morals.

Answer 239

Human attributes like abstraction and moral reasoning require an explanation that atheism cannot provide ## Footnote This highlights the uniqueness of human cognition.

Answer 240

It posits that individuals have the freedom to pursue personal goals independent of chemical causality.

Answer 241

Libet was a researcher who demonstrated that unconscious brain processes can initiate actions before conscious awareness.

Answer 242

It suggested that consciousness may not play a causal role in initiating volitional acts.

Answer 243

Choices originate from subconscious commitments and are not made in an evaluative vacuum.

Answer 244

The concept of 'free won't'.

Answer 245

It suggests that one's inclinations influence the quality of choices made.

Answer 246

It is the contradiction that arises when denying free agency while engaging in reasoning about that denial.

Answer 247

The mystery of how a material brain and an immaterial soul can interact.

Answer 248

He espoused the idea of dualism, suggesting that the mind and body are distinct entities.

Answer 249

He likened it to a pianist playing a piano, where damage to the piano affects the pianist's ability to play.

Answer 250

They argue that materialism refutes itself and undermines its own credibility.

Answer 251

It posits that humanity displays both nobility and wickedness, which can be explained by the Biblical account of creation and the fall.

Answer 252

He describes it as a paradox, showcasing both noble qualities and the capacity for great wickedness.

Answer 253

They remove culpability for wickedness but lose recognition of human nobility.

Answer 254

It indicates the likelihood of life after death.

Answer 255

It refers to the idea that if death ends everything, then consciousness is rendered meaningless.

Answer 256

The moral argument claims that the existence of moral judgments requires the existence of a transcendent law giver, that being God.

Answer 257

* The existence of objective moral reality * The existence of a personal and moral God

Answer 258

[personal God]

Answer 259

* If a personal God does not exist, then objective moral values do not exist. * Objective moral values do exist. * Therefore, a personal God exists.

Answer 260

Moral judgment is dependent upon the social conditions within a cultural context.

Answer 261

The idea that human beings have an innate understanding of how they ought to behave.

Answer 262

The existence of a Supreme Being is the only rational basis for moral law.

Answer 263

A highest good (summum bonum).

Answer 264

* Moral behavior is rational. * Moral behavior is only rational if justice will be done. * Justice will only be done if God exists.

Answer 265

A universal code we all must follow, recognizing an 'ought' that is exception-less in every culture at all times.

Answer 266

If God does not exist, then everything is permitted.

Answer 267

A rigid standard by which to judge all truth claims.

Answer 268

[transcendent source]

Answer 269

It indicates how people are inherently aware of moral standards, even if they criticize them.

Answer 270

That moral values exist independently of human opinions.

Answer 271

A dilemma regarding whether the pious is beloved by the gods because it is holy or if it is holy because it is beloved by the gods. ## Footnote First raised by Plato in his dialogue Euthyphro.

Answer 272

* If something is good because God wills it, then God could will anything to be good. * If goodness lies outside of God, then it undermines God's moral supremacy.

Answer 273

Objective moral values have their source in the eternal character, nature, and substance of a loving, just, and self-sufficient God.

Answer 274

Outside of the law.

Answer 275

God is subject to no law, while created beings are subject to God's moral law.

Answer 276

A reflection of the Supreme Being, indicating that human choice is morally right when it aligns with God's moral law.

Answer 277

* Necessary morality exists in all possible worlds. * Contingent morality cannot be objectively set apart as a standard.

Answer 278

They often cite what they consider to be reprehensible actions of God in the Old Testament.

Answer 279

The position that all moral judgments are merely expressions of feeling.

Answer 280

How do you justify (or ground) a moral standard without God?

Answer 281

They often respond with how it is possible for an atheist to be moral rather than addressing the basis for moral standards.

Answer 282

By that very fact or act.

Answer 283

God's moral will is based on His changeless character, not on whims.

Answer 284

It assures that God acts according to His nature, which is good.

Answer 285

They sidestep the argument by focusing on the actions of God instead of the necessity of a transcendent lawgiver.

Answer 286

The distinction between what 'is' (facts) and what 'ought' to be (values) ## Footnote G. E. Moore referred to this as the 'naturalistic fallacy'.

Answer 287

David Hume ## Footnote Hume's work includes 'A Treatise of Human Nature'.

Answer 288

A new sort of relation that cannot be deduced from facts ## Footnote This concept is often called Hume's guillotine.

Answer 289

Science can help navigate or optimize moral choices once they are determined by other means ## Footnote For example, providing evidence of oppression to support moral conclusions.

Answer 290

An Intuitive Collective Moral Standard as Darwinian-driven

Answer 291

Our evolutionary origins ## Footnote Dawkins draws parallels between physical traits and moral senses.

Answer 292

It suggests a moral standard that promotes collective well-being, but is subjective ## Footnote This raises questions about whose definition of harmony is authoritative.

Answer 293

Moral Standard as Utilitarian

Answer 294

Jeremy Bentham

Answer 295

The greatest happiness of the greatest number measures right and wrong

Answer 296

By adding the concepts of pleasure and pain to the principle ## Footnote He defined happiness as pleasure and absence of pain.

Answer 297

The is-ought distinction is illusory

Answer 298

Utilitarian maximization of sentient well-being

Answer 299

A hypothetical machine that provides simulated happiness for life ## Footnote It raises questions about the nature of well-being.

Answer 300

It may not account for the complexity of human experiences and motives

Answer 301

They lack a transcendent basis for moral obligations ## Footnote This leads to subjective moral standards.

Answer 302

An interpretive grid for moral decision-making ## Footnote This includes guidance from various books of the Bible.

Answer 303

* Ten Commandments * Mosaic code * Proverbs * Ecclesiastes * Prophets * Gospels * Epistles

Answer 304

The existence of God based on the nature of material existence.

Answer 305

An explanation.

Answer 306

'Why is there something rather than nothing?'

Answer 307

That everything must have a sufficient reason for its existence.

Answer 308

An entity that is dependent upon another entity for its existence.

Answer 309

It does not depend on anything else for its existence.

Answer 310

The universe has an explanation for its existence that is grounded in a necessary being.

Answer 311

It leads to the conclusion that there is no ultimate cause.

Answer 312

self-explanatory.

Answer 313

1. Anything that exists has an explanation of its existence. 2. The universe has an explanation of its existence grounded in a necessary being. 3. The universe exists. 4. Therefore, the universe has an explanation for its existence. 5. Therefore, the explanation for the existence of the universe is grounded in a necessary being. 6. Therefore, God exists.

Answer 314

They require a sufficient reason for their existence.

Answer 315

It suggests that the universe must have a cause for its existence.

Answer 316

Something.

Answer 317

If everything must have a cause, then God must have a cause.

Answer 318

By asserting that a necessary being does not require a causal explanation.

Answer 319

That it claims every item within the physical universe is contingent.

Answer 320

Contingent entities require a necessary being (God) for their existence.

Answer 321

contingent object.

Answer 322

It leads to an infinite regress.

Answer 323

It cannot not exist.

Answer 324

Through exclusive disjunctions: Either it exists or it does not.

Answer 325

The universe as a whole.

Answer 326

It must be grounded in something eternal.

Answer 327

Kalām is an Arabic term meaning 'word'. ## Footnote It is similar in meaning to the Greek expression 'logos'.

Answer 328

Al-Kindi (801 - 873) and al-Ghazali (1058 - 1111).

Answer 329

The kalām argument includes the idea that the universe has a beginning in time.

Answer 330

Everything that has a beginning of its existence has a cause of its existence.

Answer 331

The universe has a beginning of its existence.

Answer 332

Therefore: God exists.

Answer 333

'From nothing, nothing comes' (ex nihilo nihil fit).

Answer 334

Any expanding universe cannot be past eternal.

Answer 335

If the universe was infinitely old, then the light from every star would have time to arrive at earth, thus causing a bright night sky.

Answer 336

He observed a 'red shift' in several galaxies indicating the universe is expanding.

Answer 337

They detected the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) radiation.

Answer 338

The ratio of hydrogen to helium is three to one.

Answer 339

The universe is moving towards a state of maximum disorder and minimum usable energy until it reaches heat death.

Answer 340

* Necessity: Uncaused, unchangeable, self-sufficient * Transcendence: Immaterial, omnipotent, omnipresent, eternal * Personal-ness: Has a will to decide

Answer 341

His invisible attributes, eternal power, and divine nature have been clearly seen through what has been made.

Answer 342

unchangeable

Answer 343

The cosmological argument seeks to establish that the universe has a cause, often identified as God ## Footnote This argument posits that everything that begins to exist has a cause.

Answer 344

The Impossibility of a Timeless First Cause ## Footnote This objection questions how a timeless cause can initiate a temporal effect.

Answer 345

Time behaves as a fourth dimension alongside the three spatial dimensions of length, width, and height.

Answer 346

Time slows down from the perspective of the moving entity.

Answer 347

Timeless ## Footnote This implies that the cause cannot be constrained by time.

Answer 348

It questions how a timeless entity can initiate an act or change, like creating a contingent universe.

Answer 349

God's existence is relational and personal, without a past-future dynamic.

Answer 350

God interacts within the temporal sequence of human activity.

Answer 351

The Possibility of Something from Nothing.

Answer 352

Lawrence Krauss.

Answer 353

A quantum fluctuation of information lacking space-time or matter.

Answer 354

It implies some laws of physics and a suitable quantum state are present.

Answer 355

It states that fluctuations in quantum fields are inherently turbulent.

Answer 356

They are theorized to have expanded their influence due to the rapid expansion during the big bang.

Answer 357

He argued that it assumes properties and laws that should not be present in 'nothing'.

Answer 358

The absence of anything not logically necessary.

Answer 359

The Ontological Argument refers to God as 'that than which none greater can be conceived,' while the Cosmological Argument refers to God as 'that which is farthest back.'

Answer 360

End, purpose, or goal

Answer 361

The argument from design

Answer 362

By design, not by chance

Answer 363

It indicates that it was fashioned with some purpose or goal in mind

Answer 364

William Paley

Answer 365

Complexity and intentional functionality imply a designer

Answer 366

* The cosmos displays features of intentional design. * If the cosmos displays design, then there must be a designer. * If the cosmos had a designer, then this designer must transcend the cosmos. * We call this transcendent designer God. * Therefore, God exists.

Answer 367

The teleological emphasizes specificities of the cosmos, while the cosmological emphasizes contingencies

Answer 368

Natural selection mechanism of evolution

Answer 369

Hyperactive agent detection device

Answer 370

Concepts of gods and spirits

Answer 371

Pareidolia

Answer 372

* Cognitive functions are not inherited; only genes are. * Cognitive functions do not have any selective advantages, only behavior does. * Cognitive functions cannot be observed, only inferred from behavior. * Only scant evidence exists of any connection between a given gene and a cognitive function.

Answer 373

It displays features of intentional design

Answer 374

It is the initiator of dogmatic statements about design.

Answer 375

God exists

Answer 376

[designer]

Answer 377

Assuming some predator is intending to do harm

Answer 378

Epistemic method of coherence

Answer 379

God as a first cause that is uncaused

Answer 380

God as an intelligence that establishes order

Answer 381

A mode of apologetics that attempts to show that Christianity is not unreasonable rather than proving it is reasonable. ## Footnote Also known as 'Apologetics of Defense,' focusing on factual defenses against criticism.

Answer 382

It emphasizes that correspondence can be a qualifier for truth claims. ## Footnote This means that evidence must align with reality to support claims.

Answer 383

Josh McDowell, author of 'Evidence that Demands a Verdict.'

Answer 384

To show that Christianity is credible rather than to prove that it is true.

Answer 385

A move away from dependence on past authorities like Aristotle towards empirical observation and the scientific method.

Answer 386

An English scientist and philosopher who promoted the scientific method and criticized reliance on past authorities.

Answer 387

'Novum Organum.'

Answer 388

He believed they were primarily contemplative and did not advocate rigorous experimentation.

Answer 389

Probable evidence admits of degrees and cannot produce certain proof, unlike demonstrative evidence. ## Footnote Butler claimed that 'Probability is the very guide of life.'

Answer 390

It suggested that religious realities are analogous to physical realities and can be understood through empirical approaches.

Answer 391

A modern evidential apologist who claimed that facts must be self-interpreting for knowledge to be attainable.

Answer 392

The Scriptures presume a correspondence view of truth, where language and reality are congruent.

Answer 393

He compares it to ships venturing out of familiar waters into the vast Atlantic.

Answer 394

The idea that compiling more evidence increases the certainty of Christian truth claims.

Answer 395

It posits that scientific efforts indicate cosmic design as an initial premise of a theistic proof that concludes with a transcendent Designer, whom we call God.

Answer 396

* Survival benefit (HADD) for those assuming intelligent agents behind phenomena * Natural selection producing organisms that only appear designed

Answer 397

The lesson explores whether human intuition can be warranted and if design intuition can be substantiated by science.

Answer 398

The ability to understand something immediately, without the need for intricate analysis.

Answer 399

Requiring elaborate analysis to uncover what our gut intuition already knows.

Answer 400

Fundamental expectations by which to live common life that must be accepted without analytical strings attached.

Answer 401

Science can only utilize data that is observable, measurable, and repeatable.

Answer 402

The view that a person could be wrong in a belief yet justified in holding that belief.

Answer 403

Criteria to identify mechanisms in life indicating an intelligent cause, requiring both complexity and specificity.

Answer 404

* Complexity with a very low probability * Specificity that is intentionally specified ahead of time

Answer 405

The chemical structure of DNA, which is complex and contains information necessary for cellular functions.

Answer 406

It states that the universe is finely tuned for human habitability.

Answer 407

The idea that there exist an infinite number of universes, each with its own properties and laws.

Answer 408

The principle that the best explanation is one that makes the fewest assumptions.

Answer 409

It may weaken the nature of scientific proof.

Answer 410

It is a reaction against the Designer hypothesis, indicating that physicists acknowledge the universe's fine-tuning.

Answer 411

No one of the approximately 50 cosmological constants can be predicted from the others; they are independent.

Answer 412

A philosopher who moved from atheism to deism due to the evidential weight of cosmic fine-tuning.

Answer 413

The origin of life and evolution of biological complexity required an improbable combination of astrophysical and geological events ## Footnote Proposed by Peter Ward and Donald Brownlee in their book 'Rare Earth: Why Complex Life is Uncommon in the Universe' (2000)

Answer 414

Peter Ward and Donald Brownlee ## Footnote Their book was published in 2000

Answer 415

The belief that Earth is a typical rocky planet in a typical planetary system located in a non-exceptional region of a common galaxy ## Footnote Popularized by Carl Sagan and Frank Drake in the 1970s and 1980s

Answer 416

N = N* • ne • Is • fp • fpm • fi • fc • fi • fm • fj • fme ## Footnote N represents the number of Earth-like planets in the Milky Way having complex life forms

Answer 417

N* is the number of stars in the Milky Way; ne is the average number of planets in a star's habitable zone

Answer 418

Approximately 500 billion ## Footnote This estimate is based on multiplying N* and ne

Answer 419

* Is = the fraction of stars in the galactic habitable zone * Ip = the fraction of stars in the Milky Way with planets * Jpm = the fraction of planets that are rocky rather than gaseous

Answer 420

The fraction of habitable planets where microbial life arises

Answer 421

False ## Footnote The equation suggests that the probability of complex life is very low

Answer 422

utterly prohibitive

Answer 423

It raises questions about how life on Earth can exist under a strict Darwinian paradigm

Answer 424

The fraction of planets with a sufficiently low number of extinction events

Answer 425

A philosopher who moved from atheism to deism due to the argument from intelligent design

Answer 426

The fraction of planetary systems with large Jovian planets

Answer 427

Complex extraterrestrial life is an improbable phenomenon and likely to be rare

Answer 428

It contributed to Flew's transition from skepticism about theism to belief in deism

Answer 429

Abiogenesis ## Footnote Abiogenesis is also known as chemical evolution.

Answer 430

Michael Behe ## Footnote Behe discussed this in his book 'Darwin's Black Box'.

Answer 431

Mousetrap ## Footnote A mousetrap cannot function if any one part is missing.

Answer 432

* Control center for replication and metabolism in the nucleus * Energy supply by the mitochondria * Protein construction by RNA transcription and transference of instructions to the ribosomes * Waste disposal by the lysosomes * Food and waste storage by the vacuoles * Selective membrane transfer * Internal transportation by the endoplasmic reticulum

Answer 433

Natural selection ## Footnote Natural selection explains how traits better suited for survival are passed on.

Answer 434

The set of all genes in a species or population.

Answer 435

Copy errors in genes that increase trait options.

Answer 436

False ## Footnote Darwin's theory was later expanded upon by Neo-Darwinism which includes genetic mutations.

Answer 437

Microevolution involves small changes within species; macroevolution explains the origin of new species.

Answer 438

It amplifies traits that result in greater reproductive success.

Answer 439

The shortcomings of the Darwinian mechanism in explaining the origin of life systems.

Answer 440

* Origin of phenotypic complexity * Origin of anatomical novelty * Origin of non-gradual modes of transition

Answer 441

It illustrates selection's inability to invent.

Answer 442

They provide genetic variation necessary for natural selection.

Answer 443

It cannot adequately explain the transition from microevolution to macroevolution.

Answer 444

True ## Footnote The absence of any component leads to failure in cellular function.

Answer 445

A biochemical challenge ## Footnote Behe discusses the limitations of mutation-selection mechanisms.

Answer 446

It does not reveal a gradual adaptation of traits ## Footnote Denton suggests that the fossil record contradicts Darwin's expectations.

Answer 447

They would be connected by 'fine, intermediate varieties' ## Footnote This view was later challenged by the fossil record.

Answer 448

The idea that nature makes no jumps ## Footnote The term comes from the Latin 'natura non facit saltum'.

Answer 449

The Cambrian explosion ## Footnote This event features the rapid emergence of most major animal phyla.

Answer 450

Niles Eldredge and Stephen Jay Gould ## Footnote This theory suggests evolution occurs in brief bursts followed by long periods of stasis.

Answer 451

It occurs when a small portion of a species becomes isolated ## Footnote This isolation leads to changes that are not seen in the larger population.

Answer 452

They follow stasis and then extinction, not an 'evolutionary tree' ## Footnote This challenges the traditional view of gradual evolution.

Answer 453

That we evolved from various hominin species ## Footnote Examples include Neanderthals and Homo erectus.

Answer 454

It has remained virtually constant during their existence ## Footnote This suggests a lack of significant evolutionary change.

Answer 455

Different genes producing a single trait ## Footnote It allows for greater genetic variation.

Answer 456

Traits determined by several genetic loci ## Footnote Examples include height and other complex traits.

Answer 457

They could produce a small population with significant genetic variation ## Footnote This would counter the need for thousands of unrelated progenitors.

Answer 458

Jewelry, clothing, language, tools, and symbolic art ## Footnote These artifacts suggest a new type of behavior in the fossil record.

Answer 459

To prepare the ecosystem for advanced human predators ## Footnote This preparation could have prevented mass extinctions.

Answer 460

Allowed prey to adapt to the increased threat of advanced predators ## Footnote This adaptation helped maintain biodiversity.

Answer 461

Conduct personal study and explore rebuttals from qualified scientists.

Answer 462

Recognize the clear intuitive answer regarding design.

Answer 463

Douglas Axe.

Answer 464

The intuition that accidental invention is impossible.

Answer 465

It cannot know what to select without assessing utility until many steps later.

Answer 466

A demonstration that the basic argument is simple, not technical.

Answer 467

Leibniz's Principle of Sufficient Reason (PSR).

Answer 468

* Something from Nothing * Living from Nonliving * Living from Material * Sentience from Living * Ought from Is

Answer 469

Naturalistic worldview fails to explain the evolution of consciousness.

Answer 470

It questions how an organism can represent items as abstracted symbols.

Answer 471

It questions if organisms can be free from chemical determinism to abstract.

Answer 472

They develop new hypotheses while admitting some holes in their ideas.

Answer 473

Matthew 11:25.

Answer 474

It suggests rebellion against their Maker influences their views.

Answer 475

A faith that constrains explanations of life and science within its tenets.

Answer 476

ten-year-old.

Answer 477

To investigate the probability of Christian truth claims through historical investigations.

Answer 478

It cannot provide a solid foundation for faith commitments.

Answer 479

An 'ugly, broad ditch.'

Answer 480

A less obvious necessary truth.

Answer 481

His existence is accepted by reputable historians as virtually certain.

Answer 482

As a carefully investigated account of eyewitness testimony.

Answer 483

Exact or certain, meaning 'not to trip up.'

Answer 484

He encouraged listeners to empirically verify his claims.

Answer 485

Researching primary sources and archaeological discoveries.

Answer 486

It is of a synthetic nature and never rises above probabilities.

Answer 487

A German historian known for his influential work on the historical method.

Answer 488

Eyewitness account and primary sources.

Answer 489

Number of sources and their agreement on an event.

Answer 490

The source having no attachment to the event.

Answer 491

The events surrounding Jesus had many open confirmations available for investigation.

Answer 492

It assesses if the testimony fits with other reliable documents of its time.

Answer 493

They can disclose unreliability only by exposing contradiction.

Answer 494

Their credibility.

Answer 495

It examines the textual transmission by which documents reach us, assessing how well current manuscripts match the original texts authored by Biblical writers.

Answer 496

* Shaped by church communities to address specific questions and needs * Passed down orally, evolving with legendary materials * Assumed written form long after the original events

Answer 497

Chauncey E. Sanders

Answer 498

It determines whether a written record is credible and to what extent, checking if the document is intended as a serious historical account and authoritative.

Answer 499

It determines whether non-Biblical historical material confirms or denies the internal testimony of the documents.

Answer 500

Over 30,000

Answer 501

It allows for comparisons that help reconstruct the original text with virtually complete accuracy.

Answer 502

The effort to uncover the content of the autograph from the multitude of manuscripts available.

Answer 503

They are much closer, with the earliest copies dating back to around 29 years after the original writings.

Answer 504

About 99.5% textually pure

Answer 505

Any difference between manuscripts involving spelling, word order, omission, addition, substitution, or total rewrite.

Answer 506

It involved memorization and accurate transmission of teachings, with some authors like Mark and Luke relying on eyewitness accounts.

Answer 507

* Controlled - material is memorized and preserved * Uncontrolled - subject to variations based on community needs

Answer 508

That a solid core of information about an event remains even after two generations of transmission.

Answer 509

They were required to accurately pass them on from memory.

Answer 510

They demonstrate a vibrant oral tradition and suggest that some teachings existed shortly after the events they describe.

Answer 511

No, it emphasizes the general meaning rather than exact wording.

Answer 512

Whether the Scriptures can stand as reliable documents on their own merit

Answer 513

Apparent contradictions in storyline between the four Gospels

Answer 514

Misrepresenting the Scriptures to point out supposed inconsistencies

Answer 515

Josh McDowell

Answer 516

The discipline of interpreting ancient literature

Answer 517

Five commonsense rules of interpretation for Scriptures

Answer 518

Every book of Scripture is delivered by human agency and must be interpreted from the author's intent

Answer 519

Every book of Scripture is received by human agency and must be interpreted in harmony with how readers would understand it

Answer 520

Every Bible passage has only one unchanging meaning but multiple life-applications

Answer 521

The most obvious meaning of any passage is usually correct

Answer 522

Scripture must be interpreted in harmony with the context and other passages

Answer 523

Interpreting Scripture by Scripture

Answer 524

To communicate God's plan of redemption through Christ

Answer 525

Apostolicity, Orthodoxy, Catholicity

Answer 526

Correspondence by eyewitness accounts, written by apostles or close associates

Answer 527

Coherence with the rule of faith established by previously accepted Scripture

Answer 528

Widespread consensus within orthodox Christianity

Answer 529

They were not written by the traditionally claimed authors but were anonymously written

Answer 530

Testimonies from early church fathers like Papias and Irenaeus

Answer 531

They were common fishermen who spoke Aramaic

Answer 532

["Jesus hand-picked literate men", "Intellectual transformation from being with Jesus", "Time to develop writing skills after Jesus' ministry", "Use of writing assistants (amanuensis)"]

Answer 533

Writers may not relay the complete story, emphasize different aspects, or omit/add details

Answer 534

Two or more claims that cannot simultaneously be true in the same sense and at the same time

Answer 535

If they are acquainted with Biblical hermeneutics and have investigated their issues in scholarly literature

Answer 536

Scholarly literature is available for response

Answer 537

Biblical writings with extra-biblical sources such as ancient writings and archeological artifacts ## Footnote The external test checks if Biblical references fit within other cultural expressions during the expected time period.

Answer 538

The 'fitting' historicity of the descriptions found in Scripture ## Footnote It does not prove the Bible to be the Word of God.

Answer 539

Adequate copies of the original autographs rather than a much later fabrication ## Footnote They should be historically consistent regarding various cultural details.

Answer 540

* City names * Language idioms * Financial transactions * Money exchange * Rulers * Cultural aspects * Political structures * Geography * Social customs ## Footnote These details help confirm the historical context of the texts.

Answer 541

A Scottish archeologist who confirmed the historical accuracy of the book of Acts ## Footnote He initially sought to prove the author of Acts inaccurate but found overwhelming evidence to the contrary.

Answer 542

It could bear minute scrutiny as an authority for the facts of the Aegean world ## Footnote Ramsay stated it was a model of historical statement.

Answer 543

More than 25,000 sites ## Footnote These include findings such as the bones of a first-century crucifixion victim and an inscription of Pontius Pilate.

Answer 544

A research fellow at Tyndale House who demonstrated the book of Acts' ties to its cultural and historical context ## Footnote Hemer's work confirmed hundreds of archaeological finds supporting specific persons, events, and facts.

Answer 545

He was a pioneer of Biblical archeology and an expert in Ancient Near East studies ## Footnote His proficiency in ceramics contributed to dating sites based on ceramic typologies.

Answer 546

Skeptical ## Footnote He changed his view after discoveries confirmed the historicity of Biblical details.

Answer 547

Most scrolls present a consonantal text virtually indistinguishable from the Masoretic Bible ## Footnote This finding highlights the preservation of Biblical Hebrew texts.

Answer 548

No archaeological discovery has ever controverted a Biblical reference ## Footnote His work confirmed many historical statements in the Bible.

Answer 549

An expansion of apologetic resources ## Footnote This has made it rare to encounter novel evidential challenges.

Answer 550

The life and resurrection of Jesus ## Footnote This topic will be investigated for external tests in the next lesson.

Answer 551

Is Jesus an historical figure, or was He invented by an early Jewish sect?

Answer 552

References to the person of Jesus from non-Biblical (external) sources.

Answer 553

Thallus (50-75 AD)

Answer 554

The darkness that fell over the land.

Answer 555

A Syriac Stoic philosopher who wrote a letter allegedly referring to Jesus.

Answer 556

Christians reciting hymns to Christus as if to a god.

Answer 557

A person named Chrestus who instigated the expulsion of Jews from Rome.

Answer 558

A 2nd-century Greek philosopher who denigrated early Christianity.

Answer 559

Referring to the first Christian lawgiver as a crucified sophist.

Answer 560

Tacitus and Josephus.

Answer 561

He underwent the death penalty in the reign of Tiberius by Pontius Pilatus.

Answer 562

Pilate was a prefect, not a procurator.

Answer 563

The James Passage and the Testimonium Flavianum.

Answer 564

Jesus as the brother of James.

Answer 565

Jesus as a wise man who performed wonders and was crucified.

Answer 566

Many scholars believe they include later interpolations by Christians.

Answer 567

Over seventeen writings.

Answer 568

* Christ's death under Pontius Pilate in Judaea between AD 26 and AD 36 * Christ was worshipped as God early on * Christ's followers often experienced persecution * Christians spread far and fast * Some early Christian leaders knew of Christ's family origins

Answer 569

Jesus is believable, therefore Jesus is God.

Answer 570

* Liar * Lunatic * Lord

Answer 571

* Fulfilled prophecy * Miracles * Resurrection of Christ

Answer 572

A less common kind of God's activity in the world.

Answer 573

All natural events must presuppose a supernatural substratum.

Answer 574

They cannot justify their own existence.

Answer 575

History as a search for a 'most probable event' and miracles as a 'least probable event.'

Answer 576

Magma represents the supernatural substratum, while lava represents miracles as rare glimpses into this reality.

Answer 577

That improbable events can still be true if no other explanation fits.

Answer 578

Its occurrence is the most probable conclusion from the evidence.

Answer 579

If the resurrection did not occur, faith is deemed worthless ## Footnote 1 Corinthians 15:13-14 states that without the resurrection, preaching and faith are useless.

Answer 580

The four gospels and all of Paul's letters ## Footnote Paul's transformation from a persecutor of the church adds credibility.

Answer 581

Women’s testimony was culturally deemed unreliable, suggesting authenticity of the event ## Footnote If the story was fabricated, it would be unlikely to use such a source.

Answer 582

Why would they continue to proclaim it to the point of death if it were not true?

Answer 583

* Jesus rose from the dead * Hallucination * Myth * Conspiracy * Swoon

Answer 584

* Too many qualified witnesses * Hallucinations are brief and private * Hallucinations do not interact with the environment * The corpse was still in the tomb

Answer 585

* The Gospels have a consistent style differing from myths * Insufficient time for myth development

Answer 586

* Disciples did not recant under torture * Profound nature of the story * No self-serving motives * No corpse produced by opponents

Answer 587

* Roman procedures ensured death * Signs of death (blood and water) * Transformation of disciples could not occur from a mere resuscitation

Answer 588

* Execution: Jesus was dead * Empty Tomb: The tomb was empty * Eyewitnesses: Over 515 saw Him * Early records: Not a later legend * Emergence of the Church: Rapid growth post-resurrection

Answer 589

* Transformation of defeated followers * Change of Sabbath from Saturday to Sunday * Testimony of women recorded * Declaration of Jesus as Lord * Early declaration of resurrection

Answer 590

Amassing supportive facts to deem the Christian explanation plausible

Answer 591

Evidential relies on inductive reasoning from demonstrable facts; classical uses deductive reasoning from premises

Answer 592

* Specified complexity * Fine-tuned universe * Rare Earth equation * Biogenesis * Fossil record * Human consciousness * Human abstraction * Human free agency

Answer 593

* Eyewitness testimony * Outside document consistency * Cultural consistency * Human behavior consistency * Testimony trustworthiness * Manuscript authenticity * Oral tradition dependability * Archeological consistency * Resurrection credibility

Answer 594

Induction: Generalize from cumulative observations

Answer 595

Deduction: Specify from general premises

Answer 596

A form of argument where a proponent avoids addressing an objection by pointing out perceived inconsistencies in the opponent's position. ## Footnote Also known as whataboutery.

Answer 597

It inundates an opponent with rapid-fire arguments, burdening them to respond to each one. ## Footnote The goal is to overwhelm rather than uncover truth.

Answer 598

A defense of a truth claim that keeps adding qualifications to avoid falsification, making it indistinguishable from an imaginary claim. ## Footnote Popularized by the Parable of the Invisible Gardener.

Answer 599

A story illustrating how a belief in an invisible gardener parallels belief in God, suggesting that such beliefs can be unfalsifiable. ## Footnote Originally penned by John Wisdom and adapted by Antony Flew.

Answer 600

Induction cannot guarantee that future instances will resemble past experiences, undermining the basis for scientific claims. ## Footnote Hume posits that we cannot generalize connections from singular observations.

Answer 601

A priori knowledge is independent of experience, while a posteriori knowledge is dependent on experience. ## Footnote Examples include self-evident truths (a priori) versus empirical observations (a posteriori).

Answer 602

Analytic statements have predicates contained in the subject, while synthetic statements do not. ## Footnote An example of an analytic statement is 'A square has four equal sides'.

Answer 603

The belief that our senses can reliably receive data from the external world and that our minds can accurately reflect upon this data. ## Footnote John Locke viewed the mind as a blank slate at birth.

Answer 604

He proposed falsifiability as a criterion for empirical science, arguing that theories cannot be proven but can be disproven. ## Footnote This means science progresses through refutation, not confirmation.

Answer 605

False. ## Footnote Hume argues we should never assume that our perceptions reflect reality.

Answer 606

A posteriori

Answer 607

The process of perceiving and matching our perceptions to the external world. ## Footnote This is considered Step 1 in establishing truth claims.

Answer 608

We cannot generalize connections from singular observations, which undermines the certainty of scientific claims. ## Footnote Hume's skepticism questions the reliability of induction.

Answer 609

Theories can never be proven but can be falsified. ## Footnote Popper's view emphasizes the importance of public scrutiny and resilience of theories.

Answer 610

They must be offered to the public for criticism. ## Footnote This process allows for the identification of resilient theories.

Answer 611

Whether neurotransmission was accomplished electrically or chemically. ## Footnote Eccles predicted an electrical mechanism, while the community favored a chemical one.

Answer 612

It provided a nudge in the right direction for science. ## Footnote Popper believed that falsification helped refine scientific understanding.

Answer 613

He saw its weakness and opted for non-correspondence. ## Footnote Non-correspondence allows for progress through the rejection of incorrect theories.

Answer 614

A pinball bouncing back and forth on its course. ## Footnote This illustrates the iterative process of rejecting wrong theories.

Answer 615

It can be as fleeting as confirmation efforts. ## Footnote Hume questions the permanence of discarded theories.

Answer 616

Positive synthetic support for a better direction. ## Footnote Without viable advances, falsification may stall scientific progress.

Answer 617

A valid correspondence. ## Footnote This means having justification for the trustworthiness of observations.

Answer 618

A manner of belief that allows for long-term effectiveness of observations. ## Footnote This is crucial for making valid truth claims.

Answer 619

A method that verifies truth claims by fitting them to a network of preexisting truth claims. ## Footnote It contrasts with correspondence, which verifies claims through observation.

Answer 620

Coherence uses reasoning and deduction, while correspondence uses observation and induction.

Answer 621

A valid argument form that states if 'All A are B' and 'C is A', then 'C is B'.

Answer 622

The reliability of the initial premise from which deductions are made.

Answer 623

The generality that can be challenged by counterexamples.

Answer 624

A prevailing system or scheme of things that guides scientific research.

Answer 625

An attempt to fit nature into the existing paradigm's framework.

Answer 626

They may resist changes to the paradigm and attempt to explain anomalies without abandoning the existing framework.

Answer 627

A significant change in the underlying assumptions or methodology of a scientific field.

Answer 628

It leads to tentativeness in findings due to the potential for a single contrary observation to negate a generalization.

Answer 629

Copernicus' proposition that 'The Earth revolves around the Sun'.

Answer 630

It can lead to dogmatism, where scientists are resistant to new ideas that challenge their existing beliefs.

Answer 631

Epistemology presupposes certain metaphysical conditions that must be in place for truth claims to be made.

Answer 632

'Daisy is not invisible.'

Answer 633

The nature of humanness and the conditions that must be assumed for human experiences.

Answer 634

'Meaning' refers to imposed metaphysical intention, while 'purpose' includes consequences upon humanity.

Answer 635

paradigm shift.

Answer 636

Meaning is something individuals create rather than something externally imposed.

Answer 637

Coherence intersects with the challenges posed by new evidence and anomalies.

Answer 638

They describe how we generate truth claims and validate them.

Answer 639

It refers to the emotional struggle scientists face when their established paradigm is challenged.

Answer 640

It implies that the paradigm resists change and is slow to adapt to new findings.

Answer 641

Noumenal world and phenomenal world ## Footnote The noumenal world refers to things as they are in themselves, while the phenomenal world refers to how we perceive these things.

Answer 642

We cannot know anything about the noumenal world ## Footnote Kant argues that our knowledge is limited to the phenomenal world, which is shaped by our sensory experiences.

Answer 643

The distinction between the noumenal world and the phenomenal world ## Footnote Kantian dualism emphasizes that our knowledge is only of the phenomenal world.

Answer 644

Kant claims we cannot verify if observations match the real outside world ## Footnote Hume believed that observations could not be generalized without experience.

Answer 645

The mode of sensing the phenomenal world ## Footnote Aesthetic refers to how we perceive the world through our senses.

Answer 646

The mode of reflecting on the phenomenal world to generalize knowledge ## Footnote Judgment involves processing sensory information to form lasting claims.

Answer 647

The conjoining of one entity that is not contained in the other ## Footnote Hume believed synthetic knowledge could not be established a priori.

Answer 648

How are synthetical judgments possible à priori? ## Footnote This question addresses the possibility of knowledge that is not solely based on experience.

Answer 649

By asserting that the mind imposes necessary unification on perceptions ## Footnote Kant suggests that this imposition allows us to generalize beyond fleeting observations.

Answer 650

Preconditions imposed by the mind necessary for knowledge ## Footnote Transcendentals are foundational beliefs that must be assumed for rational thought.

Answer 651

Transcendental principles make knowledge of experience possible, while transcendent principles are beyond possible experience ## Footnote This distinction clarifies the role of transcendentals in cognition.

Answer 652

They are the conditions under which objects are given to us ## Footnote Kant argues that we must assume time and space to perceive existence.

Answer 653

Categories of quantity, quality, relation, and modality ## Footnote These categories help the mind impose structure on perceptions.

Answer 654

* Daisy is visible or perceivable * Daisy is findable * Daisy's appearance shows consistency ## Footnote These assumptions guide Farmer Field's search for Daisy.

Answer 655

* Features of the farmyard are quantifiable * Features of the farmyard have relations to each other * Farmyard arrangement shows consistency ## Footnote These expectations are necessary for Farmer Field to make coherent claims.

Answer 656

False ## Footnote Kant argues that objects must conform to our cognition instead.

Answer 657

It highlights the epistemic condition of an anthropic consequent.

Answer 658

Pragmatic can be considered synonymous with 'practical'.

Answer 659

The 'workability' of a proposition.

Answer 660

It can lead to mistakes in perception.

Answer 661

By questioning whether his perception could be an illusion.

Answer 662

Reliable by default.

Answer 663

* Human Sensibility: my observations are dependable * Human Reasoning: my thoughts are dependable * Human Freedom: I am responsible to choose * Human Dignity: I am unique. I am made in the image of God * Human Meaning and Purpose: I am intended. I am not accidental * Human Hope: I have a future. I have a destiny for which I was intended * Human Love: I am designed to give and receive care and affirmation

Answer 664

It means the claim violates the conditions necessary for living.

Answer 665

Epistemology, not metaphysics.

Answer 666

It adds credibility to or removes credibility from truth claims.

Answer 667

Thomas Reid.

Answer 668

* The thoughts of which I am conscious are thoughts of a being I call myself * Those things really happened which I distinctly remember * Those things really do exist which we distinctly perceive by our senses and are what we perceive them to be * What is to be will probably be like what has been in similar circumstances

Answer 669

They are foundational beliefs held without inference to other beliefs.

Answer 670

Reid focuses on anthropic matters of human operability, while Kant focused on metaphysical preconditions.

Answer 671

It emphasizes the reliability of human experience and first principles.

Answer 672

No scientist could achieve absolute detachment from their beliefs and experiences.

Answer 673

A fact shaped by personal participation in knowing.

Answer 674

It leads to absurdity because it ignores human perspective.

Answer 675

They shape the way scientists process and interpret data.

Answer 676

Reid makes an epistemic virtue out of a psychological necessity.

Answer 677

[human needs]

Answer 678

A 'grid through which he feeds his knowledge' ## Footnote This concept emphasizes the subjective lens through which individuals understand and interpret information.

Answer 679

* Ambition * Envy * Political maneuvering * Luck * Intrigue ## Footnote Watson's reflection highlights the complex interplay of personal and external factors in scientific discovery.

Answer 680

The dynamic that produces paradigms, suggesting personal needs influence scientific endorsement ## Footnote Polanyi argued that scientists are often drawn to explanations that align with their lifestyles.

Answer 681

They will endorse the explanation and resist challenges to it ## Footnote This behavior illustrates the subjective nature of scientific endorsement.

Answer 682

The goal is objectivity; conclusions require an interpretive basis ## Footnote Despite striving for objectivity, science is influenced by personal interpretation.

Answer 683

No, it can only support or defeat already existing truth claims ## Footnote This indicates that anthropic conditions are not sufficient for establishing new truths.

Answer 684

Pondering life without Daisy's existence if she has never been observed ## Footnote This example illustrates the importance of observation in forming truth claims.

Answer 685

The necessary context within which epistemic methods are utilized ## Footnote Epistemic conditions help frame the understanding of truth but do not create it.

Answer 686

Refer to the summarized table ## Footnote The specific manners are not detailed in the provided text but are essential for understanding truth claims.

Answer 687

A person who rejects theism does so by reason, and a person who accepts theism does so by faith.

Answer 688

A priori beliefs (precommitments).

Answer 689

Tu quoque.

Answer 690

An informal fallacy that cannot defend your position against an attack.

Answer 691

The influence of precommitments.

Answer 692

He studied under Bruce Metzger, a renowned scholar, yet arrived at skeptical conclusions about manuscript reliability.

Answer 693

Paradigm or presupposition.

Answer 694

It maintains an untouchable, presupposed status.

Answer 695

The discomfort of intelligent individuals being religious believers.

Answer 696

* Darwinism is scientifically established beyond a reasonable doubt. * Any challenges to Darwinism are religiously based and unscientific. * Any challenge to Darwinism violates constitutional separation of church and state. * The scientific establishment is an open marketplace of ideas with little or no biases.

Answer 697

The presupposition that only material states exist; nothing immaterial, spiritual, or supernatural.

Answer 698

If a theory resists being falsified, it should not be considered scientifically valid.

Answer 699

They are unworthy of being seriously considered.

Answer 700

The tendency to interpret new evidence as confirmation of existing beliefs.

Answer 701

He identified 'idols' that hamper human thinking, like the Idol of the Den.

Answer 702

'Have courage to use your own reason!'

Answer 703

The challenge of entertaining arguments against free agency while presupposing free agency.

Answer 704

A priori beliefs shape an individual's interpretive frame for observations.

Answer 705

Beliefs based on observation or evidence after the fact.

Answer 706

It is often used as a methodology in conflict with 'science,' leading to equivocation.

Answer 707

methodological naturalism.

Answer 708

One cannot entertain an argument against free agency without presupposing free agency. ## Footnote This highlights the challenge of considering opposing beliefs without inherently affirming one's own foundational beliefs.

Answer 709

Both hold reverenced 'givens' or a priori commitments before their reasoning. ## Footnote This includes assumptions about the reliability of senses and reasoning as well as views of the universe.

Answer 710

Human reason is inoperable without recognizing a connection to the 'authority' of prime reality. ## Footnote Examples of prime reality include concepts like the existence of free agency.

Answer 711

Epistemology presupposes metaphysics. ## Footnote This means that right thinking is contingent upon actual being.

Answer 712

a priori commitment.

Answer 713

All humans advocate and are considered fundamentalists based on their respective fundamentals. ## Footnote This applies to both Christians and atheists, as both have foundational beliefs.

Answer 714

False. ## Footnote Both Christians and Enlightenment thinkers possess a priori commitments.

Answer 715

Evidence is interpreted based on the observer's worldview bias ## Footnote The interpretation of evidence is subjective and varies by individual beliefs

Answer 716

Michael Polanyi ## Footnote Polanyi discussed how evidence is not inherently labeled but is accepted as such by observers

Answer 717

Science studies only observable, measurable, and affordable aspects of the universe ## Footnote This emphasizes the limitations of scientific inquiry

Answer 718

Science cannot address the 'undissolvable' aspects beyond its methods ## Footnote This highlights the confines of scientific methodology

Answer 719

Competing paradigms fail to fully understand each other's viewpoints ## Footnote This creates challenges in debates between differing worldviews

Answer 720

A drop of ink in a cup of water ## Footnote This illustrates how a worldview influences all subsequent conclusions about life

Answer 721

They may lack common criteria for verifying claims ## Footnote This complicates meaningful communication between opposing views

Answer 722

Disagreements about the purpose of the world hinder agreement on daily conduct ## Footnote This highlights the depth of conflict in differing worldviews

Answer 723

It presupposes certain conditions that must exist to justify truth claims ## Footnote This approach focuses on necessary antecedents for reasoning

Answer 724

A cause that directly leads to an effect ## Footnote Example: A seed is the causa causans for a plant

Answer 725

A necessary condition without which an effect cannot occur ## Footnote Example: Water is a causa sine qua non for a plant's growth

Answer 726

It emphasizes necessary conditions rather than immediate causes ## Footnote This underlines a foundational reasoning for truth claims

Answer 727

He emphasized the critique of metaphysical conditions over evidential methods ## Footnote Van Til's approach focuses on what underlies one's reasoning methods

Answer 728

A foundational concept that grounds all reasoning in God's existence ## Footnote This contrasts with Kant's lack of a final beginning point

Answer 729

That without presupposing God's existence, no rational argument against it can be made ## Footnote This establishes a foundational basis for all reasoning

Answer 730

The existence of necessary conditions that are not directly observable ## Footnote This metaphor emphasizes the need for foundational truths in reasoning

Answer 731

To demonstrate contradictions if Christianity is assumed false ## Footnote This method reveals the necessity of a Christian worldview

Answer 732

It provides a foundational basis for traditional proofs within theism ## Footnote This allows evidential methods to function under a Christian worldview

Answer 733

Nature's true meaning is known only from the standpoint of Christian faith ## Footnote This suggests that understanding nature requires a theological perspective

Answer 734

An intended rational order to existence ## Footnote This perspective suggests that understanding existence requires presupposing a rational structure.

Answer 735

It enables factual efforts rather than denigrating them ## Footnote Alister McGrath referred to this realization as an 'open secret'.

Answer 736

An 'open secret' whose true meaning is known only from the Christian perspective ## Footnote This understanding does not attempt to prove God's existence through nature.

Answer 737

It illuminates the intellectual landscape and allows for the appreciation of reality's inner coherence ## Footnote This is affirmed by McGrath's statement on the explanatory fecundity of Christianity.

Answer 738

Only the Christian worldview resonates with the realities of existence ## Footnote This includes presuppositions that support classical and evidential apologetics.

Answer 739

It is discovered rather than invented by humans ## Footnote Augustine emphasized that logic's validity originates from God's nature.

Answer 740

It is a reality that cannot be overturned by skepticism ## Footnote Augustine argues that doubt cannot remove the awareness of one's own existence.

Answer 741

'Cogito, ergo sum' or 'I think, therefore I am' ## Footnote This principle highlights that thinking itself confirms existence.

Answer 742

He claims that the starting point should be self-consciousness ## Footnote This emphasizes the need for self-awareness before awareness of God.

Answer 743

Starting point is the act of thinking; beginning point presupposes God's intention ## Footnote This distinction clarifies the relationship between self-consciousness and the acknowledgment of God.

Answer 744

Seeing clearly through glasses provided by an optometrist ## Footnote The glasses represent the necessary presuppositions for understanding data.

Answer 745

The hearing ear and the seeing eye, the Lord has made both of them ## Footnote This verse emphasizes God's role in providing the ability to perceive the world.

Answer 746

[data] ## Footnote This highlights the necessity of initial understanding before transcendental questioning.

Answer 747

The common ground where the atheist and Christian can dialogue, which is the Christian worldview. ## Footnote This concept suggests that both parties assume the principles of rationality derived from the Christian perspective.

Answer 748

Because all dialogue must occur within the framework of the Christian worldview, which serves as the only point of contact. ## Footnote This highlights the presuppositionalist view that all reasoning ultimately relies on Christian assumptions.

Answer 749

The atheist must assume God's existence. ## Footnote This is based on the idea that to argue against God, one must utilize the very principles that affirm His existence.

Answer 750

The analogy of a child needing to sit on the lap of its father to slap the father's face. ## Footnote This illustrates that unbelievers rely on the truth of Christianity even while opposing it.

Answer 751

The conflict between rejecting God's lordship and the need to borrow from the Christian worldview to reason. ## Footnote This concept is associated with cognitive dissonance experienced by atheists.

Answer 752

Schaeffer describes it as cognitive schizophrenia or a point of tension due to inconsistency in their worldview. ## Footnote This reflects the struggle to reconcile the logical conclusions of atheism with the reality of existence.

Answer 753

To gently confront the atheist with their contradictions and encourage them to recognize their incoherence. ## Footnote This involves exposing the underlying issues in their reasoning.

Answer 754

The belief that nothing can be known with certainty regarding the existence and will of God. ## Footnote The term is derived from the Greek, meaning 'without knowledge.'

Answer 755

A situation where the presuppositions of the atheist lead to contradictions, especially in their claims about knowledge and certainty. ## Footnote This highlights the failure of atheism to provide a coherent framework for its own assertions.

Answer 756

It focuses on undermining non-Christian truth claims rather than defending Christianity. ## Footnote This approach emphasizes the irrationality of the assumptions held by non-Christians.

Answer 757

It emphasizes that the church is a place for healing and forgiveness rather than a showcase for perfect individuals. ## Footnote This reflects the understanding that all believers struggle with sin and inconsistency.

Answer 758

The atheist's naturalistic worldview cannot account for the reasoning they use to argue against it. ## Footnote This indicates a fundamental flaw in the atheist's ability to justify their claims.

Answer 759

1. Evidentialism - appeals to correspondence via inductive reasoning. 2. Classical apologetics - appeals to coherence via deductive reasoning. 3. Presuppositionalism - appeals to metaphysical antecedence via transcendental reasoning. ## Footnote Each approach represents a different method of engaging with philosophical and theological discussions.

Answer 760

Naturalism lacks a consistent account for enduring standards of truth and morality, relying only on 'matter in motion.' ## Footnote This raises questions about the reliability of conclusions drawn from a purely materialist perspective.

Answer 761

Lewis argues that if naturalism is true, there is no reason to trust our own thinking, as it is merely a by-product of physical processes. ## Footnote This leads to a self-referential inconsistency in atheism.

Answer 762

Materialism fails to provide a basis for judging truth, as it cannot justify the reliability of human reasoning. ## Footnote This is illustrated by the argument that if materialism is true, it cannot be judged to be true.

Answer 763

Russell's view of man as an 'accidental collocation of atoms' challenges the notion of any inherent truth or meaning in life. ## Footnote This raises existential questions about the validity of human convictions.

Answer 764

Harris proposes that moral behavior should aim to maximize human flourishing, but this standard is subjective and open to disagreement. ## Footnote This leads to questions about who defines what constitutes flourishing.

Answer 765

Eudaimonia refers to 'good spirit' or happiness, representing the highest practical good. ## Footnote Aristotle posits that happiness is a common goal among humans, but interpretations of it vary.

Answer 766

Materialism cannot provide intrinsic moral values, as morality is merely a product of societal consensus and can change over time. ## Footnote This leads to moral relativism where acts are deemed right or wrong based on current societal norms.

Answer 767

Realism posits that matter exists independently of perception and is self-sustaining. ## Footnote This view faces challenges when exploring deeper physical levels of existence.

Answer 768

Idealism suggests that the existence of objects depends on the operation of minds; without subjective minds, objects cannot exist. ## Footnote Kant argues that objects only have identity within the mind of the subject.

Answer 769

Berkeley claimed that objects cannot exist independently of being perceived; they are dependent on minds for their existence. ## Footnote This challenges the realist notion of mind-independent existence.

Answer 770

The existence of the universe may depend on God's mind, suggesting a metaphysical grounding for reality beyond mere materialism. ## Footnote This perspective aligns with biblical teachings about God sustaining all things.

Answer 771

God's energies are expressions of divine glory that are distinct from His essence, infusing and upholding creation. ## Footnote This distinction emphasizes God's active role in the universe.

Answer 772

For rationality to exist, there must be a being that provides the metaphysical basis for intentionality, which is argued to be God. ## Footnote This highlights the choice between acknowledging God or falling into chaos and insanity.

Answer 773

Frame asserts that nothing is intelligible unless God exists, emphasizing the need for a transcendent and personal God. ## Footnote This contrasts with cosmological arguments that focus solely on God as the first cause.

Answer 774

Nothing is intelligible unless God exists, and God must be the Trinitarian, sovereign, transcendent, and immanent absolute personality of the Scriptures.

Answer 775

The cosmological argument comes up short in disclosing God's sovereignty, immanence, and triune nature.

Answer 776

The first cause must be triune in nature.

Answer 777

The struggle of how many things of existence are brought into contact with one another.

Answer 778

Human abstraction must assume some imposed interrelated meaning within the particulars of existence.

Answer 779

Unity in God is no more fundamental than diversity, and diversity in God is no more fundamental than unity.

Answer 780

Without such a transcendental, our reasoning is absurd.

Answer 781

* Popper's focus on falsification and competition among individual explanatory facts * Kuhn's focus on the recognition of an explanatory network

Answer 782

Transcendence and immanence.

Answer 783

Biblical transcendence provides a 'with us' consequence, not the detachment of deism.

Answer 784

A higher-dimensional being can interact with a lower-dimensional being while being outside of it and simultaneously very close.

Answer 785

Sovereignty.

Answer 786

To justify our reasoning and maintain order and regularities of existence.

Answer 787

The participation of contemplation and free agency integral to reasoning are absurd.

Answer 788

an outside vantage and an inside control by the first cause.

Answer 789

Foundational beliefs held without inference from other beliefs, not evidence-essential.

Answer 790

Yes, it can be held rationally without necessary inference from empirical evidences.

Answer 791

An informal fallacy where the reasoner begins with what they are trying to prove.

Answer 792

Assuming the conclusion of an argument as a premise without independent proof.

Answer 793

Freedom of speech is important because people should be able to speak freely.

Answer 794

Scripture makes declarations about itself, claiming to be the word of God.

Answer 795

It raises the question of what higher authority can validate its claims.

Answer 796

It asserts that God is a maximally great being, and all validation must circle upon Him.

Answer 797

The view that God's existence is a properly basic belief and does not need to be inferred.

Answer 798

Alvin Plantinga.

Answer 799

The model that presents it as a hypothesis to be verified or falsified by evidence.

Answer 800

Basic beliefs must be grounded in experience, although they are not dependent on other beliefs.

Answer 801

Use criteria compatible with their conclusion without assuming what they need to prove.

Answer 802

Claiming to be the best teacher in Minnesota.

Answer 803

They come from a variety of sources, ultimately leading to religious commitment.

Answer 804

Christian criteria that presuppose the truth of Christianity.

Answer 805

Christian.

Answer 806

It does not require inference from other contingent truths to be reasonable.

Answer 807

By presupposing the reliability of reason or sense experience, respectively.

Answer 808

Provide higher authoritative sources for confirmation.

Answer 809

They cannot exist without presupposing God's existence.

Answer 810

A school of apologetics that certifies the Christian claim pragmatically by lifestyle issues ## Footnote It contrasts with analytical approaches focusing on empirical, rational, or metaphysical issues.

Answer 811

Prudential apologetics seeks to show that atheism is not livable, while presuppositional apologetics shows that atheism is not rational.

Answer 812

To demonstrate how the Christian worldview satisfies personal needs and provides a livable framework.

Answer 813

He affirmed that Jesus has the words of eternal life, indicating the absence of a better alternative.

Answer 814

[personal need]

Answer 815

He emphasized personal benefit and detriment in matters of belief, illustrated by his wager.

Answer 816

An argument suggesting that believing in God is a better prudential scenario than not believing.

Answer 817

It refers to an argument that operates indirectly, proving Christianity by showing the impossibility of the contrary.

Answer 818

It illustrates the limited choices available, emphasizing that rejecting Christianity leads to no viable alternatives.

Answer 819

* A posteriori * A priori * Causa causans * Causa sine qua non

Answer 820

A state of human flourishing or happiness.

Answer 821

No explanation for life can negate the human need for meaning, purpose, and moral standards.

Answer 822

As unsuitable for human life as we know it.

Answer 823

A prudential offer of God's saving grace through Christ.

Answer 824

[practicality]

Answer 825

They prime the pump for investigation and consideration of Christian truth claims.

Answer 826

* Psalm 39:4-5 * Psalm 89:47 * James 4:14

Answer 827

Even agnosticism is a choice against the requirements of Christianity.

Answer 828

It implies that conclusions about life must accommodate a personal destiny.

Answer 829

Choosing not to believe is still a choice against God and Christian requirements.

Answer 830

They are necessary reasons that cannot be avoided in the discussion of truth.

Answer 831

Through our reason and through our heart ## Footnote The heart is associated with knowing first principles, while reason attempts to refute them.

Answer 832

Basic beliefs considered axiomatic, not requiring proofs for certitude ## Footnote Examples include concepts like space, time, motion, and number.

Answer 833

The heart's evaluative conclusions steer the mind ## Footnote The heart informs the mind, which then judges based on these conclusions.

Answer 834

It illustrates how the heart perceives patterns beyond mere visual input ## Footnote This phenomenon is known as reification.

Answer 835

Gestalt Effect ## Footnote Psychologists have noted this effect in how we perceive and interpret the universe.

Answer 836

Both ground knowledge in what is obviously the case for our ability to live ## Footnote Pascal emphasizes the heart's role in orienting reason.

Answer 837

The inconsistency between materialist conclusions and personal existence ## Footnote Unbelievers struggle to justify their predication within a materialist framework.

Answer 838

The inherent personal qualities that cannot be explained by an impersonal universe ## Footnote This concept highlights the conflict between personal experience and materialist explanations.

Answer 839

We are stuck with free will despite its inability to be fully explained ## Footnote He emphasizes that our immediate impression is that free will exists.

Answer 840

Belief in determinism increases cheating behavior ## Footnote Participants who read deterministic statements cheated more than those who read about free will.

Answer 841

True ## Footnote The heart's orientation is essential for the mind's proper functioning.

Answer 842

reason ## Footnote This highlights the distinction between emotional and rational understanding.

Answer 843

The operability of our humanness and its benefit

Answer 844

The kindness of God

Answer 845

Human beings as God's image bearers

Answer 846

* Self-consciousness * Volition

Answer 847

It fails to provide an adequate explanation for human nature

Answer 848

The truth known about God

Answer 849

As a restlessness until it rests in God

Answer 850

A God-shaped vacuum

Answer 851

A hollow made to fit a particular swelling in the divine substance

Answer 852

The principle of fulfillability

Answer 853

We ought to believe that things are as they seem to be unless evidence suggests otherwise

Answer 854

Those who do not have an experience should believe others who say they do, absent evidence of deceit

Answer 855

His personal encounter with Jesus

Answer 856

Atheists share a common a priori commitment regarding transcendental conditions for reasoning

Answer 857

A condition for human fulfillment

Answer 858

The opportunity for tremendous freedom without chaos

Answer 859

To convert the individual rather than impose societal norms

Answer 860

Ideas influenced by Protestantism

Answer 861

There is no God

Answer 862

* Reason for individual freedom * Constraint upon its abuse

Answer 863

As an inner delight rather than coercive

Answer 864

They are not burdensome for those born of God

Answer 865

The void within humans that can only be filled by God

Answer 866

To accommodate their beliefs about the world

Answer 867

Cultural benefits of Christianity ## Footnote CHIME stands for the five substantive alterations within cultures as provided by Woodberry.

Answer 868

Human choices matter, and we are responsible for our choices. Moral standards make sense.

Answer 869

Before: History is cyclical, with no direction. After: History displays intention and is making progress toward hope.

Answer 870

All individuals are made in God's image, have dignity, and deserve help and respect.

Answer 871

The body and the material world are good. Improving them is important.

Answer 872

Emotions and feelings are good and should be understood and critiqued.

Answer 873

Beliefs include cultural influence, but they are not solely determined by it.

Answer 874

* Rational * Personal * Cultural

Answer 875

It refers to turning the indictment back on the skeptic, questioning if their atheism is also a cultural product.

Answer 876

[logic or evidence]

Answer 877

It was influenced by personal satisfaction similar to any person's faith.

Answer 878

It plays a significant role in shaping beliefs, but is not the only influence.

Answer 879

An argument claiming that an argument is too horrible to be true. ## Footnote This approach is often used to misinterpret the Biblical storyline.

Answer 880

Tim Keller ## Footnote He suggested asking, 'Tell me the God you don't believe in, because chances are I don't believe in that God either.'

Answer 881

If there is a good God, why have religious people committed so much evil? ## Footnote Examples include militarization due to Shintoism and Buddhism, global terrorism from Islam, and the Crusades from Christianity.

Answer 882

God Is Not Great: How Religion Poisons Everything. ## Footnote Hitchens attempted to portray social evils as originating from religious commitments.

Answer 883

There is something in the human heart that is prone to violence and oppression, twisting any worldview into violence. ## Footnote This includes both religious and non-religious advocates.

Answer 884

The 18th century French Revolution and the 20th century Russian Revolution. ## Footnote These revolutions overturned theistic stasis, leading to significant turmoil.

Answer 885

The belief that salvation is exclusive to Christianity. ## Footnote This is often seen as intolerant and exclusive.

Answer 886

All people will eventually live in the presence of God, regardless of their actions. ## Footnote This includes the belief that even the worst individuals, like Hitler, will be in heaven.

Answer 887

If everyone is rewarded with heaven, moral standards become meaningless. ## Footnote This undermines the concept of accountability for actions.

Answer 888

Many ways lead to God. ## Footnote It suggests that multiple religions are equally valid.

Answer 889

All religions are cultural expressions in man's search for truth and are equally valid yet equally false. ## Footnote His view adapts Immanuel Kant's philosophy regarding perception and knowledge.

Answer 890

The Parable of the Blind Men and the Elephant. ## Footnote Each blind man perceives only a part of the elephant, representing limited understanding of God.

Answer 891

If true-truth is objective, then conflicting truth claims cannot all be correct. ## Footnote For example, one religion's claim about Jesus' resurrection cannot coexist with another's denial of it.

Answer 892

Invalidating a view by showing how it originated or was formed. ## Footnote Hick's assertion that all religions are cultural expressions is an example of this fallacy.

Answer 893

He points out that if someone claims there is not one way to God, they must possess a complete picture of truth. ## Footnote This contradicts the idea that all perspectives are equally valid.

Answer 894

mediator ## Footnote This emphasizes the exclusivity of Christianity in the context of salvation.

Answer 895

Hick sees each religion as a cultural expression

Answer 896

If born in Pakistan, likely a Muslim; if born in Ireland, likely a Catholic

Answer 897

Genetic fallacy

Answer 898

Invalidate a view by showing how a person came to hold that view

Answer 899

Objective truth of religious pluralism

Answer 900

It is likely a cultural consequence of being born in contemporary Western society

Answer 901

The 'whole elephant' perspective

Answer 902

A man can receive nothing unless it has been given him from heaven

Answer 903

He equips us to receive knowledge of God as a matter of disclosure

Answer 904

Viability of many moral standards

Answer 905

How to count figures like Hitler out of moral discourse

Answer 906

Inevitably collapses into universalism

Answer 907

One way leads to God - that being the way of Christ.

Answer 908

* Peter (Acts 4:12) * John (John 3:36, 14:6) * Paul (1 Timothy 2:5)

Answer 909

Salvation can be appropriated through Jesus Christ's atoning work without explicit belief in the gospel.

Answer 910

A belief that is directly stated and intends no room for uncertainty.

Answer 911

A belief that is implied but not directly stated.

Answer 912

Justin Martyr.

Answer 913

Anonymous Christian.

Answer 914

Go therefore and make disciples of all nations, baptizing them in the name of the Father and the Son and the Holy Spirit.

Answer 915

Inclusivism has no place for the sending of any missionary.

Answer 916

It can collapse into pluralism and ultimately universalism.

Answer 917

Some manner of payment or obligations.

Answer 918

God's love is unconditional and free of charge.

Answer 919

We cannot distort the gospel of Christ.

Answer 920

Everyone who calls on the name of the Lord will be saved.

Answer 921

People are not judged by what they don't know, but by what they do know.

Answer 922

People need to hear the message of the gospel to be saved.

Answer 923

God's attributes are evident within them; they are without excuse.

Answer 924

The necessity of preaching for people to hear and believe.

Answer 925

I know that my Redeemer lives (Job 19:25).

Answer 926

Old Testament saints had redemptive practices pointing to Christ, while remote peoples may not.

Answer 927

implicitly trust Christ.

Answer 928

Individuals who may not explicitly know Christ but live according to His principles.

Answer 929

You cannot be saved by a light that denies redemption through the Son.

Answer 930

To call on Christ's name

Answer 931

Believe the gospel

Answer 932

By hearing the gospel

Answer 933

To be told the gospel

Answer 934

The explicit message of Christ brought by Christians who are sent

Answer 935

Go, therefore, and make disciples of all nations, baptizing them and teaching them

Answer 936

The sending of missionaries becomes unnecessary

Answer 937

You will seek Me and find Me when you search for Me with all your heart

Answer 938

New Tribes Mission (NTM)

Answer 939

They are hungry for the talk of God and want missionaries to come teach them

Answer 940

Cornelius's prayer

Answer 941

We have no place to question how God administers His mercy

Answer 942

His work is perfect and all His ways are just

Answer 943

There is no injustice with God

Answer 944

The belief that those who do not accept Christ are eternally damned

Answer 945

* All ways lead to God * Many ways lead to God * Universalism * Pluralism

Answer 946

One way leads to God through Christ

Answer 947

So, you believe that anyone who doesn't believe just like you is going to hell?

Answer 948

There is only one way to God - the way offered in Jesus Christ.

Answer 949

Ask clarification questions.

Answer 950

Hell in the Bible has to be what the Bible describes as hell (i.e., A is A).

Answer 951

A univocal (exact or literal) description.

Answer 952

John describes it as having brilliance like a very valuable stone, like crystal-clear jasper.

Answer 953

They should be understood as analogical, usually by either a metaphor or a simile.

Answer 954

An ongoing, eternal experience of anguish.

Answer 955

It is prepared for the devil and his angels.

Answer 956

It indicates extreme experience of anguish.

Answer 957

The unbeliever is removed from God's presence.

Answer 958

The fearful consequence of being estranged from all fellowship with God.

Answer 959

Law of retaliation expressed in the phrase 'an eye for an eye'.

Answer 960

The principle of proportionate punishment.

Answer 961

Hell is tailored based on the 'hell' that the person builds in this life.

Answer 962

Whatever a man sows, this he will also reap.

Answer 963

Hell is not an arbitrary experience; it varies in tolerability.

Answer 964

The astounding thought that anybody can expect to be saved.

Answer 965

Do you believe that people who are not Christians are going to be condemned?

Answer 966

Question why they would want to live in the consequences of Christianity.

Answer 967

If they seek God's approval by performance, they will be provided such a treadmill.

Answer 968

Confirm that homosexuality is indeed a sin.

Answer 969

You shall not lie with a male as one lies with a female; it is an abomination.

Answer 970

They shall surely be put to death; their bloodguiltiness is upon them.

Answer 971

Men with men committing indecent acts and receiving in their own persons the due penalty of their error.

Answer 972

Homosexuals will not inherit the kingdom of God.

Answer 973

It implies that homosexuals should not be put to death today as per Hebrew law.

Answer 974

The semen religionis, or seed of religion.

Answer 975

God's wrath is revealed against those who suppress the truth in unrighteousness.

Answer 976

Those who say to God, 'Thy will be done,' and those to whom God says, 'Thy will be done.'

Answer 977

It is something which people choose for themselves.

Answer 978

You will find Him if you search for Him with all your heart and all your soul.

Answer 979

[be saved]

Answer 980

No one can come to Me unless the Father who sent Me draws him.

Answer 981

We are both responsible and it is God who draws us.

Answer 982

Shall not the Judge of all the earth deal justly?

Answer 983

The difference between a besetting temptation to sin and an unrepentant lifestyle of sin.

Answer 984

There is opportunity to be washed, to be sanctified.

Answer 985

By shining light in their hearts to lead them to Himself.

Answer 986

Herem warfare ## Footnote The Hebrew word means 'to devote something to total destruction.'

Answer 987

Kill all the Midianites except for the virgins ## Footnote This verse includes the command to kill all males and women who have known man intimately.

Answer 988

Kill everyone, including children ## Footnote The verse states they left no survivor.

Answer 989

All living beings in Jericho were destroyed ## Footnote This includes men, women, young, old, animals, and livestock.

Answer 990

For actions committed by their ancestors 400 years earlier ## Footnote This verse commands total destruction including men, women, children, and livestock.

Answer 991

DISH ## Footnote Reversed direction of Holiness → Sin → Israel nation → Death of Christ.

Answer 992

God must be treated as holy ## Footnote Indicates the seriousness of approaching God.

Answer 993

Unsearchable and unfathomable ## Footnote Emphasizes the depth of God's wisdom and knowledge.

Answer 994

They were given time until their sin became utterly vile ## Footnote The wrongdoing of the Amorites was not yet complete.

Answer 995

Drive out all inhabitants and destroy their idols ## Footnote Aimed to prevent the infection of God's people by vile practices.

Answer 996

They received no mercy due to God's hardening of their hearts ## Footnote This was to fulfill God's command to destroy them.

Answer 997

* Child sacrifice * Incest * Polygamy * Adultery * Homosexuality * Bestiality ## Footnote Such practices were deemed 'detestable' by the Bible.

Answer 998

Banishment or capital punishment ## Footnote This was to maintain the moral integrity of the nation.

Answer 999

It is a terrifying thing ## Footnote Emphasizes the seriousness of God's judgment.

Answer 1000

To prepare for redemption in Christ ## Footnote The nation was intended as a display of God's ways with man.

Answer 1001

It was because of the wickedness of these nations ## Footnote This was to confirm God's oath to the patriarchs.

Answer 1002

False ## Footnote They were commanded to drive them out, not exterminate.

Answer 1003

infection ## Footnote This refers to the vile practices of the Canaanites.

Answer 1004

You shall not do what is done in the land of Egypt nor in Canaan; you shall not walk in their statutes. ## Footnote Leviticus 18:1-3

Answer 1005

Strike all the men with the edge of the sword; take women, children, and animals as spoil. ## Footnote Deuteronomy 20:13-16

Answer 1006

To ensure a healthy place for the new nation. ## Footnote Some interpret the commands as hyperbole.

Answer 1007

You shall not make a covenant with them or show favor; you shall not intermarry with them. ## Footnote Deuteronomy 7:2-3

Answer 1008

Theocracies are no longer God's ways on earth. ## Footnote Colossians 2:17 discusses the shift.

Answer 1009

Any manner of warlike means to bring about the kingdom of God.

Answer 1010

It should be interpreted within the context of Christ's sacrificial act on behalf of all people.

Answer 1011

As part of a larger preparatory perspective of a greater good within God's dealings with Canaan.

Answer 1012

Many civil law aspects, including the sacrificial system.

Answer 1013

To bring the Savior of all mankind into the world.

Answer 1014

An early heretical figure who rejected the Hebrew Bible and the God of Israel as a wrathful entity.

Answer 1015

Eleven books: a gospel from Luke and ten Pauline epistles.

Answer 1016

They denounced Marcionism as heresy and excommunicated him.

Answer 1017

He would dismiss those stories as not representing the true God seen in the New Testament.

Answer 1018

It also involves jettisoning the certainty of God's redemptive plan.

Answer 1019

By citing the apparent advocacy of slavery in the Scriptures ## Footnote Skeptics often point to biblical texts to question the moral character of God.

Answer 1020

He referred to the creational intention of man and woman ## Footnote This is highlighted in Matthew 19:4-6 and Genesis 2:24.

Answer 1021

Moses permitted divorce because of the hardness of heart ## Footnote This indicates that certain laws were made to accommodate human sinfulness.

Answer 1022

An arrangement of temporary servitude ## Footnote Found in Exodus 21, it refers to the bond servant ordinance.

Answer 1023

For six years; on the seventh, he shall go out as a free man without payment.

Answer 1024

It functioned as an anti-poverty program ## Footnote It allowed indentured servants to pay off debts while remaining with their families.

Answer 1025

They were to be put to death for kidnapping ## Footnote This is stated in Exodus 21:16.

Answer 1026

The right to escape ## Footnote Deuteronomy 23:15-16 states that escaped slaves should not be mistreated.

Answer 1027

It emphasizes that both master and slave are equal in worth before God.

Answer 1028

It was intended to improve the well-being of both, not to condone hierarchy.

Answer 1029

As a fundamental part of the economy, often involving professionals becoming slaves for financial stability.

Answer 1030

To be content while seeking their freedom legally ## Footnote This is highlighted in 1 Corinthians 7:21-22.

Answer 1031

To treat them as brothers and sisters in Christ ## Footnote Ephesians 6:9 emphasizes mutual respect.

Answer 1032

Old Testament slavery was initiated by those in financial need, while the Trans-Atlantic trade involved kidnapping.

Answer 1033

They campaigned for the abolition and saw the passage of the Slave Trade Act in 1807.

Answer 1034

A key figure in the Clapham Sect who worked to abolish the slave trade ## Footnote He lived from 1759-1833.

Answer 1035

To abolish the slave trade, civilize Africa, and introduce the gospel.

Answer 1036

He helped prohibit practices like sati and improve conditions for marginalized communities.

Answer 1037

That it is ultimately meaningless and destined for extinction ## Footnote Bertrand Russell's writings reflect this perspective.

Answer 1038

As men in chains, awaiting their turn for death, reflecting despair.

Answer 1039

It lacks a rational basis for complaint against practices like slavery.

Answer 1040

All these things, if not quite beyond dispute, are yet so nearly certain, that no philosophy which rejects them can hope to stand. ## Footnote This reflects the idea that certain existential truths are unavoidable in any philosophical framework.

Answer 1041

If we have hoped in Christ in this life only. ## Footnote This verse emphasizes the futility of faith without hope in eternity.

Answer 1042

Honest hopelessness on Russell's part. ## Footnote This suggests examining the assumptions held by unbelievers regarding hope.

Answer 1043

Why do you care, Mr. Atheist? ## Footnote This question encourages reflection on the motivations behind atheistic critiques of Christianity.

Answer 1044

Why do you object to the colonializing of Hernán Cortés yet then remain silent regarding the practice of human sacrifice by the Aztec culture he invaded? ## Footnote This highlights a perceived inconsistency in moral outrage.

Answer 1045

There is no lasting difference between any two moral options. ## Footnote This suggests that moral actions lose significance if all ends in extinction.

Answer 1046

All moral impositions are functionally meaningless. ## Footnote This posits that without an afterlife, moral actions lack ultimate significance.

Answer 1047

"Is there any meaning in my life that the inevitable death awaiting me does not destroy?" ## Footnote This reflects existential concerns about the significance of life in the face of death.

Answer 1048

The idea that rational effort could be a hindrance to the gospel. ## Footnote This challenges the effectiveness of rational arguments in leading individuals to faith.

Answer 1049

A manner of rational defense (apologia). ## Footnote This suggests that rational arguments are supported by biblical teachings.

Answer 1050

Optional. ## Footnote This indicates that while the chapter is beneficial, it is not essential for understanding the main text.

Answer 1051

An investigation of such apologetic skepticism. ## Footnote This implies that questioning the role of rationality in faith can provide valuable insights.

Answer 1052

The challenge is to confront the scope of our confidence in apologetic endeavors by examining the nature of humanness.

Answer 1053

* Metaphysical nature * Moral nature

Answer 1054

It refers to the limitations of human knowledge as finite beings, which tempers confidence in apologetic proofs.

Answer 1055

Finiteness creates an illusion of limitless epistemic ability, leading to overconfidence in one's arguments.

Answer 1056

It refers to the moral impairment that affects human reasoning due to rebellion against God.

Answer 1057

The unbeliever's rebellion prevents an utterly objective or neutral perspective on truth.

Answer 1058

Psalm 40:12: 'My iniquities have overtaken me, so that I am not able to see.'

Answer 1059

The conflict is that the unbeliever's precommitment to rebellion will distort their interpretation of evidence.

Answer 1060

Faith is a gift from God, while proof is human and cannot lead to salvation without divine intervention.

Answer 1061

It is wrong to believe anything upon insufficient evidence.

Answer 1062

The story of a ship owner who allowed his ship to sail without ensuring its seaworthiness, leading to disaster.

Answer 1063

James argues that in some instances, we cannot accumulate adequate evidence, and belief can precede evidence.

Answer 1064

Her quest is commendable as she sought evidence before believing, serving as a standard for others.

Answer 1065

Thomas insisted on seeing evidence before believing, whereas the Queen sought truth through her own investigation.

Answer 1066

It refers to the impairment of human reasoning due to moral corruption from sin.

Answer 1067

'For even though they knew God, they did not honor Him as God or give thanks...'

Answer 1068

Human reasoning is adversely affected by the fall, but reason itself is based on the eternal character of God.

Answer 1069

Apologetic efforts may be undermined due to the inherent biases and distortions in human reasoning.

Answer 1070

She will rise up with the men of this generation and condemn them.

Answer 1071

She came from the ends of the earth to hear the wisdom of Solomon.

Answer 1072

Do not be unbelieving, but believing.

Answer 1073

Seeing before believing was commendable for the Queen, but believing before seeing was emphasized for Thomas.

Answer 1074

They received the word with great eagerness and examined the Scriptures daily.

Answer 1075

You will indeed hear but never understand, and you will indeed see but never perceive.

Answer 1076

You are justified to believe your private experiences unless evidence appears that you have been deceived.

Answer 1077

You will never have any beliefs at all.

Answer 1078

Something is proven when it results in a moral obligation in the person examining the offered proof.

Answer 1079

noble-minded.

Answer 1080

They assume skeptics represent the Queen of Sheba.

Answer 1081

They assume skeptics represent Thomas.

Answer 1082

At some point, you have to commit to a belief despite the lack of watertight evidence.

Answer 1083

Their hearts have grown dull, and they have closed their eyes.

Answer 1084

Immediately embracing a new belief without checking it out.

Answer 1085

The concern is whether evidence alone can establish belief, or if personal experience with Jesus is necessary for faith.

Answer 1086

Fideism is the belief that faith is paramount and that evidence or reason may not be necessary for belief.

Answer 1087

Tertullian.

Answer 1088

'What indeed has Athens to do with Jerusalem?'

Answer 1089

I believe because it is absurd.

Answer 1090

Luther held a dim view of human reason, believing that God is subject to faith and the word of God, not to reason.

Answer 1091

Spener emphasized 'heart religion' over 'head religion' and the importance of love in understanding truth.

Answer 1092

He believed that disputation is not enough to maintain or impart truth; love is necessary.

Answer 1093

He believed that experiential faith cannot be contradicted by reason.

Answer 1094

Essentialism defines humanness by unique attributes, while existentialism emphasizes personal responsibility and change.

Answer 1095

Søren Kierkegaard.

Answer 1096

He believed that becoming a Christian requires more than doctrinal assent; it requires a personal encounter with God.

Answer 1097

Personal experience is essential for true faith, as objective truths must impact the individual believer.

Answer 1098

It implies that faith is a gift from God, not solely based on individual effort.

Answer 1099

The 'triple trouble' includes God's transcendence, the Trinity, and the Incarnation.

Answer 1100

Non-rational beliefs are accepted without rational explanation, while irrational beliefs lack logical coherence.

Answer 1101

It refers to the impact of sin on human reason and understanding.

Answer 1102

He criticized it for reducing faith to mere intellectual assent rather than a personal encounter with God.

Answer 1103

It suggests that each person has been allotted a measure of faith by God.

Answer 1104

He is infinite and eternal.

Answer 1105

He is three persons - Father, Son, and Holy Spirit - in one being.

Answer 1106

Jesus was both God and man.

Answer 1107

Christian truths are often non-rational, yet never irrational.

Answer 1108

All is vanity without God.

Answer 1109

Scripture assumes the existence of God and does not develop formal proofs.

Answer 1110

The Bible takes God's existence for granted without needing proofs.

Answer 1111

A husband-wife relationship.

Answer 1112

They look upon it with suspicion.

Answer 1113

Responsible and irrational forms of fideism.

Answer 1114

It may create confusion between faith and reason.

Answer 1115

Be ready to make a defense for the hope that is in you.

Answer 1116

Reducing the gospel to a cold, human construction.

Answer 1117

Understanding why it is as it is - grasping its primary cause.

Answer 1118

Beginning or principle.

Answer 1119

'Why' questions regarding an entity.

Answer 1120

* Material Cause * Formal Cause * Efficient Cause * Final Cause

Answer 1121

That from which a thing is made.

Answer 1122

The form or pattern that determines the form taken by something.

Answer 1123

The original source of change or rest.

Answer 1124

The end or purpose for which something exists.

Answer 1125

The static identity of a thing based on its material and formal causes.

Answer 1126

Assumes that my mind can field a material cause.

Answer 1127

Assumes that my mind can decipher a formal cause.

Answer 1128

Assumes that my mind can uncover an efficient cause.

Answer 1129

Assumes that my mind can project a final cause.

Answer 1130

Conditions dealing with the 'came from' aspect.

Answer 1131

Conditions dealing with the 'goes toward' aspect.

Answer 1132

More than just its material cause.

Answer 1133

That its essence is not just what it is made of.

Answer 1134

An antecedent meaning or arché.

Answer 1135

A consequential purpose or telos.

Answer 1136

They reflect the operability of four epistemic qualifiers.

Answer 1137

Determining the nature of an entity through direct observations.

Answer 1138

Determining the nature of an entity outside of direct observations.

Answer 1139

Different schools of apologetics launch their efforts from distinct vantage points based on Aristotle's causes.

Answer 1140

The ongoing epistemic struggle of mankind to match sensory assertions with actual reality.

Answer 1141

To uncover the fundamental reality expressed in existence.

Answer 1142

As a continuous cycle of one philosopher rejecting the previous one's ideas, leading to inadequate answers.

Answer 1143

We often have to retrace our steps because our paths do not lead us where we want to go.

Answer 1144

Such principles require qualifications that themselves lack qualification.

Answer 1145

An answer grounded in the person of Jesus Christ.

Answer 1146

'What is truth?'

Answer 1147

Aristotle's 'God' is a principle, while in Christianity, God is a personal being.

Answer 1148

Plato's ultimate reality is an ideal, while Christianity's is a personal God.

Answer 1149

It provides a bridge between the world of flesh and the world of spirit.

Answer 1150

Being taken captive through philosophy and empty deception.

Answer 1151

Basic building blocks or alphabetic letters.

Answer 1152

It echoes the Greek realization that material causes hint at deeper efficient causes.

Answer 1153

All things are from Him, through Him, and to Him.

Answer 1154

incarnation

Answer 1155

He is the source and first cause of all existence.

Answer 1156

From God, who created the heavens and the earth.

Answer 1157

Jesus is the efficient cause behind all of existence.

Answer 1158

Knowledge requires an outside intentionality from a creator.

Answer 1159

There is a reasonable correlation because God made them.

Answer 1160

The principle that brings unity out of diversity.

Answer 1161

He sums up all things, integrating them into a coherent whole.

Answer 1162

Integrating all that is and bringing unity out of diversity ## Footnote This term is related to the concept of summing up all things in Christ.

Answer 1163

The Word was with God, and the Word was God ## Footnote This passage establishes Jesus as the foundational figure in creation.

Answer 1164

An active rational principle that connects all reality ## Footnote It reflects the coherence of existence as understood through Jesus.

Answer 1165

By speaking existence into being ## Footnote Referenced from Genesis 1 with 'And God said...'.

Answer 1166

To explain or interpret ## Footnote This term is where we derive 'exegesis', indicating Jesus' role in interpreting the Father.

Answer 1167

God has spoken to us in His Son ## Footnote This indicates a shift from mediated revelation through prophets to direct revelation in Christ.

Answer 1168

The image of the invisible God ## Footnote This term emphasizes Jesus as the representation of God's nature.

Answer 1169

An engraved mark or exact representation ## Footnote This emphasizes Jesus' role in manifesting God's reality.

Answer 1170

He is both the beginning and the end of existence ## Footnote This reflects the comprehensive nature of Jesus' role in creation and purpose.

Answer 1171

Beginning ## Footnote This is directly referenced in Revelation 3:14.

Answer 1172

Fulfillment in relationship with the Father ## Footnote This highlights the intended purpose of humanity as seen through Jesus.

Answer 1173

False ## Footnote Jesus is the immediate expression of God's intention, not just a mediator.

Answer 1174

Their unity with the Father through Jesus ## Footnote This indicates the relational aspect of the telos for all existence.

Answer 1175

Goal, ends, or aim ## Footnote This concept relates to the purpose behind creation.

Answer 1176

By showing His hands and feet and stating He has flesh and bones ## Footnote This is found in Luke 24:39.

Answer 1177

The reliable association between material reality and immaterial ideas ## Footnote This highlights the necessity of coherence in understanding existence.

Answer 1178

A Trinitarian realization ## Footnote This emphasizes the need for a theological foundation to substantiate truth claims.

Answer 1179

From Him and through Him and to Him ## Footnote This verse highlights the centrality of Jesus in existence.

Answer 1180

He is to be preeminent in everything ## Footnote This reflects the supremacy of Christ in all creation.

Answer 1181

The summing up of all things in Christ ## Footnote This indicates Christ's role in the ultimate purpose of existence.

Answer 1182

'Heaven above' refers to transcendent perspective; 'earth below' refers to immanent perspective ## Footnote This distinction is crucial for understanding the dual nature of existence.

Answer 1183

He is both the arché (beginning) and the telos (end) ## Footnote This illustrates Jesus' significance in initiating and concluding existence.

Answer 1184

He incarnates the transcendent, invisible being of God ## Footnote This emphasizes the material manifestation of divine truth.

Answer 1185

He is the radiance of God's glory and the exact representation of His nature ## Footnote This reinforces the idea of Jesus as the ultimate revelation of God.

Answer 1186

* Rational * Evidential * Presuppositional * Prudential ## Footnote These methods illustrate how Paul defended the truth of the resurrection.

Answer 1187

That God became man ## Footnote This encapsulates the foundational belief in Christ as central to truth.

Answer 1188

True ## Footnote This highlights the belief that understanding truth requires a basis in Christ.

Answer 1189

It reflects the metaphysical antecedent of creation ## Footnote This asserts that all creation originates from Jesus.

Answer 1190

It indicates that Jesus provides the necessary framework for understanding truth ## Footnote This emphasizes the coherence theory of truth.

Answer 1191

Arché ## Footnote This underscores the necessity of recognizing Jesus' roles for coherent understanding.

Answer 1192

Interpreters speak; evidence does not directly speak ## Footnote This points to the subjective nature of interpreting evidence.

Answer 1193

The thinker of the thought ## Footnote This emphasizes the personal aspect of truth claims.

Answer 1194

* Efficient * Final ## Footnote These types of causes relate to the origins and purposes of existence.

Answer 1195

The beginning ## Footnote This term signifies the origin or source of existence.

Answer 1196

The end ## Footnote This term signifies the ultimate purpose or goal of existence.

Answer 1197

Emphasize a faith that is dependent upon reason

Answer 1198

Reason that is dependent upon faith

Answer 1199

Tools in our toolbox

Answer 1200

Ephesians 4:29

Answer 1201

Tailor the approach to the individual and situation

Answer 1202

How they relate to each other, the external world, and the individual's life

Answer 1203

Assess each situation and choose the appropriate approach

Answer 1204

Kind to the downtrodden, harsh to religious leaders

Answer 1205

Finding the point of tension within the unbeliever

Answer 1206

The unique outlook represented by the culture

Answer 1207

The times and cultural mindset

Answer 1208

Along an empirical emphasis to match the cultural mindset

Answer 1209

Utilizing several tools to accomplish one job

Answer 1210

Investigating assorted information to cobble together the most probable explanation

Answer 1211

Abduction, induction, deduction

Answer 1212

Collecting various clues to form a comprehensive case

Answer 1213

It was the collection of evidence that demonstrated guilt

Answer 1214

Historians cannot confirm findings inductively in the lab

Answer 1215

The former is the standard for jurors in determining guilt

Answer 1216

By accumulating clues from all four schools of apologetics

Answer 1217

Forcing in a word while ignoring crossing clues

Answer 1218

The claim that miracles are unlikely

Answer 1219

Ruling out possible explanations to find the most plausible one

Answer 1220

Theistic improbability is countered by atheistic impossibility.

Answer 1221

Miracles become the best explanation in light of the accumulative facts.

Answer 1222

Abduction reasons by ruling out possible explanations until left with the most plausible one.

Answer 1223

It promotes a sense of necessary mystery.

Answer 1224

Atheism claims no positive assertion, thus carrying no burden of proof.

Answer 1225

Leibniz's principle of sufficient reason (PSR).

Answer 1226

It requests a positive argument for materialism.

Answer 1227

Proving existence can be done by presenting the object, while proving non-existence is more complex.

Answer 1228

What proof do you have for your claim?

Answer 1229

Atheism is often misrepresented as a lack of belief rather than a positive claim against theism.

Answer 1230

An isolated view is a deficient view.

Answer 1231

If one leaky bucket will not hold water, there is no reason to think that ten can.

Answer 1232

Each approach is necessary but not sufficient.

Answer 1233

["Both sides agree Christianity leads to the right position.", "Both sides agree the unregenerate cannot be argued into heaven without God's call.", "Neither side believes reasoning from nature alone leads to knowledge of God.", "Neither side believes it is useless to talk or preach to the unsaved."]

Answer 1234

Our struggle is against spiritual forces of wickedness.

Answer 1235

It involves anchoring evidential defense within prudential matters.

Answer 1236

The skeptic may claim a priori bias against the inerrancy of Scripture.

Answer 1237

If Christ has not been raised, preaching and faith are useless.

Answer 1238

Without inerrancy, life is seen as meaningless.

Answer 1239

By the transgression of one, many died; grace abounds through Jesus Christ.

Answer 1240

All of life is considered meaningless and hopeless.

Answer 1241

Genesis shows the beginning of the problem which the rest of the Bible resolves.

Answer 1242

It summarizes how four epistemic qualifiers provide a basis for apologetic discourse.

Answer 1243

["A posteriori, causa causans", "A priori, causa sine qua non", "Metaphysical", "Pragmatic"]

Answer 1244

["Inductive", "Deductive"]

Answer 1245

The end or purpose.

Answer 1246

To win a person, not just an argument. ## Footnote This emphasizes the importance of personal connection over mere debate.

Answer 1247

With wisdom and love, avoiding returning evil for evil. ## Footnote This aligns with 1 Peter 3:9 and the example of Jesus.

Answer 1248

Do not answer a fool according to his foolishness. ## Footnote This suggests maintaining a level of discourse and avoiding pointless arguments.

Answer 1249

Each side must represent the other's argument in its strongest form. ## Footnote This is highlighted by Keller in 'The Reason for God'.

Answer 1250

Derived from the Anglo-Saxon term god-spell, meaning 'good story'. ## Footnote The term is also rendered from Latin evangelium and Greek euangelion.

Answer 1251

* God loves you and has a wonderful plan for your life * God can give you purpose * You need a personal relationship with Jesus ## Footnote These statements, while true, do not encapsulate the essence of the gospel.

Answer 1252

God saves sinners. ## Footnote This captures the core message of Christianity regarding salvation.

Answer 1253

A prudential offering of grace exclusive to Christianity. ## Footnote This contrasts with other faiths where acceptance by God is based on actions.

Answer 1254

The personal experience of encountering God through Christ. ## Footnote This is often referred to as Testimonium spiritus sancti internum.

Answer 1255

Belief based on personal experience with God. ## Footnote This emphasizes the subjective aspect of faith.

Answer 1256

His lengthy investigation of Christianity contributed to his conversion. ## Footnote This illustrates the role of intellectual inquiry in faith.

Answer 1257

It highlights the relationship between belief in God and personal experience. ## Footnote This reflects the logical structure of belief and experience.

Answer 1258

The name of God is blasphemed among the Gentiles because of you. ## Footnote This underscores the importance of Christian conduct in witness.

Answer 1259

Calm, poised, and focused on love rather than defensiveness. ## Footnote This approach fosters a more productive dialogue.

Answer 1260

The tongue of the wise makes knowledge acceptable. ## Footnote This contrasts with foolish speech that spreads folly.

Answer 1261

The love of wrangling and childish vanity in debate. ## Footnote This highlights the importance of maturity in discussions.

Answer 1262

To present the gospel while addressing objections appropriately. ## Footnote This emphasizes a balanced approach in apologetics.

Answer 1263

To give the believer confidence when challenged by a skeptic

Answer 1264

Let your steadfast love come to me, O Lord, your salvation according to your promise; then shall I have an answer for him who taunts me, for I trust in your word

Answer 1265

I am not a Christian because it feels good... I am a Christian because it is evidentially true

Answer 1266

Putting on Jesus as a sweater accessory versus that of a parachute necessity

Answer 1267

Testimonium Spiritus Sancti

Answer 1268

He will guide you into all the truth

Answer 1269

The Spirit Himself testifies with our spirit that we are children of God

Answer 1270

Tsur, which means to confine, bind, or besiege

Answer 1271

God shuts us up to reality

Answer 1272

* An orderly universe * The mannishness of man

Answer 1273

The skeptic must personally arrive at an actual crisis of faith

Answer 1274

To be secure in the credibility of their faith

Answer 1275

Because He first loved us

Answer 1276

Address their doubts

Answer 1277

The gospel of God's saving grace

Answer 1278

The necessary condition for something to occur

Answer 1279

Our own pending death

Answer 1280

Once I am 'hemmed in' by the saving work of Christ, apologetic arguments become rather indubitable for me

Answer 1281

The one to whom they are addressed

Answer 1282

I planted, Apollos watered, but God was causing the growth

Answer 1283

With wisdom, making the most of the opportunity, and with grace

Answer 1284

To respond with godly ways

Answer 1285

Conduct yourselves with wisdom and make the most of the opportunity. Your speech must always be with grace, seasoned with salt.

Answer 1286

It involves pausing to consider godly ways to respond and showing true concern for the listener.

Answer 1287

* Befriend * Ask questions * Identify * Testify

Answer 1288

It helps the skeptic see you as someone who cares, rather than an opponent.

Answer 1289

To put a stone in the shoe of the skeptic, providing an enlightened irritation regarding their view.

Answer 1290

He responded to challenges with questions, encouraging dialogue.

Answer 1291

It is safe to disagree only when each side has learned to represent the other's argument in its strongest form.

Answer 1292

Whether you clearly understand his argument and show interest in what is important to him.

Answer 1293

* Why is this so important to you? * How did you come to your opinions?

Answer 1294

By sharing your own struggles and experiences with doubt.

Answer 1295

God comforts us in all our affliction so that we can comfort others.

Answer 1296

Experiences of hurt and rejection, and the promise of healing from God.

Answer 1297

Gentleness and respect

Answer 1298

Must not be quarrelsome, but kind, able to teach, patient, and gentle.

Answer 1299

Peace and sincerity

Answer 1300

Wisdom from above is pure, peaceable, gentle, reasonable, full of mercy and good fruits.

Answer 1301

To seek avenues of influence in their lives.

Answer 1302

You are the light of the world, meant to give light to everyone.

Answer 1303

It can lead to unrealistic or self-refuting positions.

Answer 1304

Probabilistic and provisional assertions.

Answer 1305

Gotthold Lessing.

Answer 1306

Whether lasting conclusions can be justified.

Answer 1307

A doctrine that dismisses theological and philosophical speculation in favor of strict, objective certainties.

Answer 1308

Auguste Comte.

Answer 1309

* Theological stage * Metaphysical stage * Positive stage

Answer 1310

He founded a 'scientific method' known as historicism.

Answer 1311

The past must be understood simply on its own terms.

Answer 1312

By placing it within its agreeableness to Old Testament prophecy.

Answer 1313

An explanatory scheme of reality through noticing patterns.

Answer 1314

It may resist the introduction of contrary data.

Answer 1315

It can twist anomalies to fit a deduced scheme.

Answer 1316

It views them with suspicion.

Answer 1317

It asks what must be the case for existence to be as it is.

Answer 1318

Have a basic competence to discern data at the level of everyday living.

Answer 1319

The belief that one's senses can successfully match reality without consulting other beliefs.

Answer 1320

By positing the reliability of his senses as a properly basic belief.

Answer 1321

It can lead to the removal of truth claims from common-sense recognition.

Answer 1322

Consider what effects the object of our conception might have practically.

Answer 1323

Away from first things of efficient cause towards last things of final cause.

Answer 1324

It can lead to a demotion of outside-imposed efficient objectivity.

Answer 1325

It can lead to a complete relativism where all perspectives are equally valid.

Answer 1326

It may ignore the interpretive context of the facts.

Answer 1327

It may lead to extreme rationalism.

Answer 1328

It may overlook the necessity of correspondent and coherent recognitions.

Answer 1329

It may absolutize human impact and lead into pragmatism.

Answer 1330

Howell and Prevenier.

Answer 1331

The purpose or end for which something is done.

Answer 1332

The means by which something comes into being.

Answer 1333

The apologist may struggle to include mysteries within a neat rational paradigm.

Answer 1334

Final say dogmatism.

Answer 1335

To fit all data into the dictates of reasoning.

Answer 1336

The limitation of human understanding in relation to divine concepts.

Answer 1337

God makes the categories of mind to fit the place where He put us.

Answer 1338

A posteriori, causa causans ## Footnote A posteriori refers to knowledge gained through experience, while causa causans refers to the cause of an effect.

Answer 1339

Empirical, Rational ## Footnote Empirical reasoning is based on observation and experiment, while rational reasoning is based on logical deduction.

Answer 1340

Correspondence

Answer 1341

Empiricism

Answer 1342

A priori, causa sine qua non ## Footnote A priori refers to knowledge that is independent of experience, while causa sine qua non refers to a condition that is essential for an effect.

Answer 1343

Metaphysical

Answer 1344

Presuppositional

Answer 1345

Prudential

Answer 1346

Skepticism

Answer 1347

Pragmatism

Elements Of Apologetics Flashcards

(1448 cards)