OBSERVATIONS

Question 1

Behavioural categories

Answer 1

To conduct systematic observations, we need to break up this stream of behaviours into a set of components, called behavioural categories.

Question 2

Behavioural categories should:

Answer 2

1) Be objective: Observer should not have to make inferences about the behaviour, categories must relate to actions.

2) Cover all possible components behaviours and avoid a ‘waste basket’ category (where you can include anything that isn’t already covered).

Question 3

Time sampling

Answer 3

Observer decides on a time interval, notes any behaviours displayed during that time interval.

Question 4

Strengths of time sampling

Answer 4

-More representative overtime as it allows for tracking of time related changes in behaviour.
-Easier and more manageable as it avoids having to record everything, you are just taking a sample.

Question 5

Weaknesses of time sampling

Answer 5

-Behaviour may be missed if time samples are limited and important behaviour occurs outside the observation interval, affecting validity.

Question 6

Event sampling

Answer 6

Noting everytime a particular behaviour of interest occurs, usually a list of behavioural categories is used and a count is kept of everytime they occur within observational period.

Question 7

Strengths of event sampling

Answer 7

-Less likely to miss predefined events/ behaviours of interest.
-Records are easy to obtain and analyse as they are just totals

Question 8

Weaknesses of event sampling

Answer 8

-Can be hard if lots of behaviour occurs at once, reducing validity
-Can miss events not coded for
-Gives no indication of relative time spent on each behaviour.

Question 9

Structured observation

Answer 9

Has clearly defined system for recording behaviour, decided beforehand which behaviours are going to be observed and how they are to be categorised.
These behaviour categories are called a behaviour checklist.

Question 10

Advantages of structured

Answer 10

-Easy to record; operational definitions can be developed in pilot study before data is collected to be certain they include all key actions.
-Manageable
-Easier to test inter-rater reliability (agreement between observers)
-Some control over observer bias

Question 11

Disadvantages of structured

Answer 11

-Reductionist; simple definitions of behaviour may not convey sufficient meaning,e.g a lifted hand could be a wave or a threat? This lowers validity.
-Predetermined behavioural categories may be limiting if new behaviours become apparent in the study.

Question 12

Unstructured observation

Answer 12

Researcher records all relevant behaviour but has NO system, behaviour studied is largely unpredictable.

Question 13

Advantages of unstructured

Answer 13

-No limitations of specific categories, any relevant behaviours can be recorded= rich data, more complete (increases validity).
-Detailed descriptions of behaviours rather than simple categories meaning observations give more complete picture of situation.

Question 14

Disadvantages of unstructured

Answer 14

-Harder to record everything, observers may miss/ignore important aspects.
-Harder to establish reliability.
-Open to observer bias, recording may be inconsistent and subjective without operational definitions.

Question 15

Naturalistic observation

Answer 15

Recording spontaneously occurring behaviour in subjects own environment. Everything left as usual but structured techniques may be used.

Question 16

Advantages of naturalistic

Answer 16

-High ecological validity(especially if observer is hidden/covert) ps in natural environment react more realistically.
-Sometimes is only ethical/practical method.

Question 17

Disadvantages of naturalistic

Answer 17

-Difficult to establish cause and effect as variables only observed and not manipulated/controlled. (threatens validity)
-Lack of control over extraneous variables makes replication harder.
-Invasion of privacy=ethical issues.

Question 18

Controlled observation

Answer 18

Recording spontaneously occurring behaviour, but under conditions contrived or manipulated by researcher. e.g Milgram

Question 19

Advantages of controlled

Answer 19

-More accurate observations due to more controlled conditions (equipment can be used sometimes)
-Easier replication as extraneous variables can be controlled, validity high compared to naturalistic (easy to test for reliability)
-usually avoids ethical issues concerning consent.

Question 20

Disadvantages of controlled

Answer 20

-Demand characteristics
-Environment may feel unnatural and ps may behave differently, affecting validity.

Question 21

Participant observation

Answer 21

Carried out by a person who is in the group being observed.
Can be disclosed or undisclosed.

Question 22

Advantages of participant observation

Answer 22

-Sometimes only way to observe behaviour such as in gangs/cults.
-if undisclosed, natural behaviour is shown increasing ecological validity.
-Provide special insights into behaviour from ‘inside’ such as motives & emotions.

Question 23

Disadvantages of participant observation

Answer 23

-if researcher becomes too involved, may lose objectivity and become bias.
-Risk of seeing what we expect/want to see, could selectively report info instead of noting everything that they have observed (reduces validity of data).
-Harder to monitor if observer is part of group/social setting.

Question 24

Non-participant observation

Answer 24

Observer is not a participant in behaviour observed, e.g through one-way mirror or CCTV etc…

Question 25

Advantages of non-participant observation

Answer 25

-Easier to remain objective due to psychological and physical distance
-no influence on behaviour observed (valid)
-less ethical issues

Question 26

Weaknesses of non-participant observation

Answer 26

-observer may misinterpret communications within group as they are outsider, can reduce validity.
-People may act different if they know they’re being observed. (demand characteristics)

Question 27

Covert observation

Answer 27

Observation is made without ps knowing.

Question 28

Ads of covert

Answer 28

-increases validity as ps less likely to be aware that they are being observed and so are more likely to behave in genuine way.
-less social desirability/demand characteristics.

Question 29

Disads of covert

Answer 29

-ethical issues around informed consent and right to withdraw
-observers are also participant observers it my be difficult for them to record data accurately but obtrusively.

Question 30

Overt observation

Answer 30

Disclosed observation as ps give permission for behaviour to be observed.

Question 31

Evaluation of observational techniques: RELIABILITY

Answer 31

Refers to how consistent measure is, when making observations, we require observation to be something we can depend on, we expect same data even if observations made by different people (INTER RATER RELIABILITY)
-Reliability can be improved by training observers in using behavioural checklists, may be necessary to review checklist to ensure categories are not too similar or vague.

Question 31

Ads of overt

Answer 31

Reduces ethical issues as ps are aware of observers presence.

Question 31

Disads of overt

Answer 31

-social desireability bias
-demand characteristics as ps aware being observed, responses may not reflect normal behaviour.
-decreases validity

Question 32

Evaluation of observational techniques: VALIDITY

Answer 32

Extent to which research has measured what it intended to measure.
Main issue with observations is observer bias (influenced by own expectations) Reduces objectivity and validity of observations.
Can deal with observer bias by using more than one observer and averaging data across observers to balance out biases.
Can also improve it by not telling observers aims of research to prevent expectations biasing observations.

Question 33

Evaluation of observational techniques: ETHICS

Answer 33

Naturalistic observations have ps observed without their consent, some observations may be regarded as invasion of privacy and participant confidentiality should be respected.
One-way mirrors= deception/ lacks informed consent.
Seen as acceptable to observe people in public where people expect to be seen by others anyway.

Question 34

Overall strengths of the observational method

Answer 34

-High ecological validity where ‘real’ behaviour is being observed-especially where people unaware of being observed.
-Can produce extremely ‘rich’ in depth data.
-Low demand characteristics where unaware of being observed.
-Can be used where it would be difficult/ unethical to manipulate variables.
-Can be used to generate hypotheses for further experimental research.

Question 35

Overall weaknesses of the observational method

Answer 35

-Lack of control over variables as nothing is being manipulated/held constant. (unchanged)
-Can be subject to observer bias.
-Difficult to conclude cause + effect relationships as no variables being manipulated.
-Difficult to ensure inter rater reliability
-Hard to replicate
-Ethical issues if people observed without permission (informed consent).
-Demand characteristics if people observed with their permission.