Observations Flashcards
Participant observation
When researcher joins groups to get inside perspective and deeper understanding
“ Go native “
Getting to attached
Non - participant observation
When researcher does not join groups. Stands out taking notes effectively
- people who are observed do not behave naturally = reactivity ( will invalidate data )
Covert
When gorups does not know they are being observed. If asked > lies ( decrease demand characteristics but not always ethical )
Overt
When groups know they are being observed, and if asked are opened to answer
Naturalistic
A type of observation in peoples natural habitat
Strength - high ecological validity and are sometimes ethical
Event sampling
When researcher takes notes on only the behavior that is being studied
Point sampling
When researcher notes each participants behavior individually
Time sampling
When researcher only notes behavior in a regular time interval
Field notes
Account of what has been observed
Strengths of participant observation
- Provides detailed and in-depth knowledge of topic
- Avoids researcher bias because the researcher seek to understand how and why the social processes are the way they are, instead of imposing their own reality on the phenomenon
- Holistic interpretation, because researcher takes into account as many aspects as possible of that a particular group of people, in order to synthesize observations. The researcher uses material from the participants themselfes to generate theory and tries to explain one set of observations in therms of its relationship with others
Limitations on participant observations
- Difficult to record data promptly and objectively
- time - consuming and demanding. Demanding, the researcher needs to be physically present and live the life of people they are studying. Time consuming, data analysis, arrive at an account that is reasonably objective and contextually sensitive.
Strengths of naturalistic observations
- high ecological validity ( collection of data takes place in the participants natural enviroment, assumed that participants will behave as they usually do )
- used to collect data that would be impossible or unethical otherwise
Limitations of naturalistic observations
- Risk that people will vreact to being observed ( reactivity involved )
- Checking the data ( if researcher collects it alone )
- Ethical considerations concerning the appropiateness of observing stranters without their knowledge
Inter-observer reliability
Multiple observers in the same time field can compara data to ensure a match of the data
Sample
A nature of the group of participants
Opportunity sampling
A sample of whoever happens to be there and agrees to participate
Sampling bias
A sample is collected in such a way that some members of the intended population are less likely to be included than others
Snowball sampling
Participants recruit other participants among their friends and acquaintances
Participant variability
The extent to which the participants may share a common set of traits that can bias the outcome of the study
Random sampling
Sample in which every member of the target population has an equal chance of being selected
Generalization
Application of research to a larger population
Stratified sample
Draws random sample from each subpopulation within the target population
Informed consent
Participants must be informed about the nature of a study and agree to participate
Deception
The researcher does not inform the participant about the exact aims of their study
Protection from physical and mental harm
The participant should not be subjected to harm throughout the study
Application
How a theory or empirical study is used
Validity
Ability of research to do what it claims to do; it can be generalized
Ecological validity
The study represents what happens in real life
Reliability
Ability of the results of a study to be replicated
Cross-cultural validity
The research is relevant to different cultures
Ethnocentric
Based on the values and beliefs of one culture
Independent variable
Causes a change in the other variable; the variable that the researcher manipulates
Operationalized
Written in such a way that it is clear what is being measured
Hypothesis
A prediction of how the independent variable affects the dependent variable
Control conditions
A standard against which other conditions can be compared in an experiment
Lab experiment
Researchers have strict control of variables; conducted in an artificial environment
Field experiment
Takes place in a natural environment, but researchers still manipulate the variables
Natural experiment
Researchers have no control over the variables ( they are naturally occurring )
Confounding variables
Undesirable variables that influence the relationship between the independent and dependent variables
Null hypothesis
The general statement that is no relationship between the independent and dependent variables, which the researcher tris to disprove
Hawthorne effect
Participants try to guess the aim of a study and act accordingly
Single blind control
The participants do not know what the study is about
Double blind control
the participants do not know whether they are in the treatment or control group and the person carrying out the experiment does not know the aims of the study or whether each group is the treatment or control group
Artificiality
When the situation created is so unlikely to occur that one has to wonder if there is any validity to the findings of the study (low ecological validity)
Correlational data
Data which show a relationship between 2 variables
Positive correlation
both the variables are affected in the same way (i.e. both increasing or both decreasing)
Negative correlation
Variable are affected in different ways ( i.e. asone variable increases, the other decreases )
Bidirectional ambiguity
no cause-and-effect relationship can be determined because no independent variable is manipulated
Triangulation
Combination of different research methods in a study in order to collect richer data
Deductive approach
works from the general to the more specific; concerned with testing or confirming hypotheses
Inductive approach
moves from specific observations to broader generalizations and theories; involves the exploration of a research question and generates qualitative research
Participant bias
when the participants adjust their responses or behaviour to what they think is appropriate for the interviewer
social desirability bias
when people want to present a positive image of themselves and do not tell the truth when asked personal questions
Subjectivity
Researchers opinions and beliefs affect the research process
Objectivity
Unbiased research
Reactivity
participants alter their behaviour when they are being observed
Reflexivity
researcher is constantly aware of how and why they are conducting research and recognize at what points their own beliefs and opinions about the topic under investigation might have influenced data collection or analysis
Holistic approach
the entire subject is evaluated; considers all perspectives, conditions and variables; accepting and open-minded
Emic approach
Inductive
Etic approach
Deductive
