Observation techniques

Question 1

Planification d’une observation directe (Déterminer l’objectif)

Answer 1

Determine the objective
Theoretical objective (to increase our general knowledge about a phenomenon)
-Causality
-Development
-Sequential organization of behaviors
-etc.

Question 2

Planification d’une observation directe (Objectif normative)

Answer 2

Normative purpose
- To develop standards that will allow clinical judgments to be made about the normality or pathology of an individual in a specific situation

Question 3

Planification d’une observation directe (Objectif éducatif)

Answer 3

Educational objective
-To better understand the behavior of an individual in interaction with the
physical and social environment
-Diagnostic evaluation of the problem
-Evaluation of the implementation of the intervention plan
(i.e. verify if the intervention strategy is applied by the different stakeholders)
- Evaluation of the effects of the intervention (i.e.Did the intervention produce the desired effects?)

Question 4

Planification d’une observation directe (Choisir une centrationet type de d’observation)

Answer 4

Choosing a focus
The behavior of a target individual or group in a specific situation

Choose a type of observation
Participatory, systematic, etc.

Question 5

Planification d’une observation directe (Choisir une technique d’échantillonnage)

Answer 5

Choose a sampling technique
of subjects
behaviors: define them in an operational way (observable and measurable)
observation times

Question 6

Planification d’une observation directe (Choisir un système de notation)

Answer 6

5- Choose a grading system
- Logbook, grid, etc.

N.B. The combination of the four previous tools must be guided by
by a concern for scientific rigor, by a concern for energy conservation and by the limits imposed by the physical and social environment where the observations will take place.
The limits imposed by the physical and social environment where the observations will take place

Question 7

Les techniques d’observation

Answer 7

Observer = measuring instrument
The decision: problem of subjectivity
Observation techniques: to minimize this standardization problem
Contribute to the internal validity of the data collected
by ensuring its reliability and reducing bias

Question 8

Les techniques d’observation (suite)

Answer 8

Provide more complex and comprehensive information about
a given problem in a context that is closer to the “natural” context
Apply only to quantitative observation
Quantitative observation, which aims to obtain measurable information about behavior

Question 9

Trois types de mesures observationnelles

Answer 9

Frequency
Duration
Intensity
- more subjectivity

Question 10

Échantillonnage comportemental

Answer 10

Actions and postures
The gaze is often used as a criterion to determine who is interacting
The sequence begins when the two individuals look at each other
and ends when one individual turns his back to the other

Question 11

Échantillonnage comportemental (suite)

Answer 11

Define behaviors and establish a coding system
Transform a continuous production into discrete information
Descriptive vs. functional definitions (e.g. Tembrock)
Definitions must be exclusive
Restricted or exhaustive samples
The number of categories depends on the problem studied

Question 12

Échantillonnage des sujets.
Ad libitum:

Answer 12

Ad libitum: depending on the opportunities to see the subjects
- Bias due to differential observability
-Bias related to the observer who could choose the subjects
and the observation times according to his mood

Question 13

Échantillonnage des sujets (suite)

Answer 13

+Focus on a particular individual (focal individual sampling) or on a subgroup (focal subgroup sampling)
-Systematization of the choice of the subject or group observed and the times of observation
-Note the duration of each observation period and the
proportion of time the subject is visible

Question 14

Échantillonnage des moments d’observation

Answer 14

-Distribution: continuous vs. discrete
-Snapshot vs. one-zero samples
-Length of observation periods
-Cut-off points (start and end)

Question 15

Trucs pour diminuer l’effet de l’observation sur les sujets:

Ways to reduce the effect of the presence of a camera:

Answer 15

-Install the camera in the room well in advance of the
observation session so that it can be habituated
-Camouflage the small red light that signals the recording
-Use a remote control so that there is no one behind the camera when you are filming

Question 16

Trucs pour diminuer l’effet de
l’observation sur les sujets
Ways to reduce the effect of the observer’s presence
Moyens pour réduire l’effet de la présence de l’observateur

Answer 16

-Identify and take into account the characteristics of an observer
that may influence the behavior of individuals
-Allow the observed to become accustomed to the
presence of observers to reduce the level of distrust
-Provide a rationale for the observer’s presence

Question 17

Moyens pour réduire l’effet de la présence de l’observateur (suite)

Answer 17

Stand back out of the field of vision of the persons being observed
Remain neutral
Avoid attracting attention
Do not interfere with the activity of the persons being observed
Do not react to observed behavior
avoid eye contact with a person

Question 18

Trucs pour diminuer les erreurs
Précautions à prendre:

Answer 18

Precautions to take:
-Be aware of your physical and mental state; perhaps postpone the observation session
-Do a good training when the grid is complex
-Double-check or randomly subsample the data
-Avoid all unsupported interpretations

Question 19

Choix du mode de transcription des données
Médium de travail:

Answer 19

Working medium:
-On the spot or by audio or video recording
-In person or hidden behind a -one-way mirror
-Journaling
-Types of notes

Question 20

Types de notes

Answer 20

Benchmark notes: taken on the spot, used as a reference point when writing the detailed report to recall some marginal events or a word heard
-Descriptive notes: description of places or people, accounts of events, interactions
-Prospective notes: ideas on how to behave the next day, things to observe or check, texts to read
-Analytical notes: ideas for interpretation that come to us in the field

Question 21

Choix du mode de transcription des données

Answer 21

-verbal, written or computerized transcription
-Closed vs. open protocol
-Numerical or alphanumerical code
+Observation grids
There are as many as there are research problems
+Molar vs. molecular

Question 22

Validity

Answer 22

Validity of the grid
-Theoretical
Documented by research for:
–Its ability to measure underlying concepts (convergent validity)
-Its ability to differentiate between different individuals or situations (discriminant validity)
-Its ability to predict a developmental trajectory
(predictive validity)

Question 23

Validité

Answer 23

Ecological
-Adapted to the environment where it is used
Clinically
-In accordance with the importance given to these behaviours by
stakeholders in the environment to these behaviours
-Taking into account the practical limits imposed by the environment

Question 24

Fidélité

Answer 24

Calculation of data reliability
-Calculation of observer error
-Inter-judge and intra-judge agreement
+basic equation (2 and n judges)
+on the whole, on a sample or by categories
-The Kappa coefficient: to account for chance

Question 25

Analyse et interprétation

Answer 25

Data reduction
-Group behaviors (according to functional categories)
-or drop low frequency behaviors

Remember that observation does not necessarily provide
us with information about the motivational, affective and cognitive
components of the subjects

Question 26

Analyse et interpretation (suite)

Answer 26

-For systematic observation, the ideal is to observe behind a one-way mirror
-It is advantageous to observe under natural conditions or
to reconstitute these conditions in the laboratory

Question 27

Analyse et interpretation (suite

Answer 27

-Disadvantage of audio recording:
Difficulty recognizing the person speaking in a group

-Problems related to the person being observed:
+Level of reactivity of the people being observed: tendency for people
to change their behavior when observed
++Age of children: less reactivity in preschoolers than in older children

Question 28

Sociogramme

Answer 28

Présentation des résultats sur les interactions sociales

Question 29

Éthique liée à l’observation:
Concern for objectivity

Answer 29

Concern for objectivity
-Rigor in data collection
-The interpretation of behavior, and therefore the subsequent
intervention, can have negative repercussions on the future of the
the individual being observed
-Avoiding value judgments

Question 30

Éthique liée à l’observation (Être conscient de qui on est et de nos limites)

Answer 30

Being aware of who you are and your limits
-Openness to questioning one’s own behavior and decisions and
accepting to question oneself

Question 31

Éthique liée à l’observation (suite)

Answer 31

What would you expect if someone came forward to do an observation exerciseto do an observation exercise in your group?
-Respect for people
-Respect for local rules (e.g., don’t move objects without permission)
-Inform people about the objectives
-Reassure people about the confidentiality of the data
-Obtain their consent for public dissemination of the images,
if applicable; OR inform them that only the observation team will be able to see the images

Question 32

Éthique liée à une recherche
Obtenir le consentement éclairé

Answer 32

Obtaining informed consent
Written or verbal
Inform about the objectives and the procedure
Inform about risks and benefits
Inform about the possibility of reporting by the researcher

Question 33

Éthique liée à une recherche

Answer 33

-Compensation, not salary
-Possibility to withdraw at any
-time without justification
-Anonymized data
-List on name and number correspondence
under lock and key