objectives c2

Question 1

Counselors:

Answer 1

Therapeutic interventions with relatively normal functioning clients who are experiencing adjustment reactions, developmental issues, or problems of daily living

Question 2

Psychologists/psychiatrists

Answer 2

Diagnosis, treatment, and clinical management of persons with psychopathological symptoms and other severe mental disturbances

Question 3

Allied Mental Health Professionals

Answer 3

counselors
pyschologists/pyschiatrists
Social workers/family therapists
Pastoral care

Question 4

Social workers/family therapists:

Answer 4

Medical management of patients with clinically significant psychological problems
-Use of medication, hospitalization, and therapy
-Social casework and therapy to mediate relationships with social structures
-Systemic approach to diagnosing and treating problems in a family context
-Extensive use of more active/directive interventions to realign family structures

Question 5

Pastoral care:

Answer 5

An approach to helping that is embedded in religious, spiritual, or ministerial work
Combines theology with community service

Question 6

Using the term counseling emphasizes:

Answer 6

Preventing rather than only fixing problems
Using a developmental rather than exclusively psychopathological model of diagnosis
Focusing on adjustment and developmental concerns rather than only psychopathology
Doing relatively short-term rather than long-term work
Practicing in the community rather than in medical settings

Question 7

why do people use the term counseling and therapy interchangeably?

Answer 7

In many ways, the two words refer to essentially the same sort of professional helping activity

Question 8

what was the first methond of counseling and who created it? why is it still used today?

Answer 8

Cathartic method of talking out problems was pioneered by Sigmund Freud at the 19th cen. as a method for treating persons with psychological problems

Today, most agree that:
Talking over problems is helpful
Sharing feelings and concerns is useful
Professional helpers are reasonable alternatives for those facing difficult problems or situations
Constructive change can occur when a counselor and a client work together toward identified, realistic goals

Question 9

The Philosophers said what about counseling?

Answer 9

There is no single right answer to any question worth asking
There are many possible interpretations of the same experience
Any philosophy is worthless if it is not personalized and made relevant to everyday life

Question 10

Hippocrates

Answer 10

400 B.C.
Concepts of homeostasis (natural balance of the body) and prognosis (prediction of outcomes)
Emphasized the importance of obtaining a complete life history before undertaking any treatment

Devised the first comprehensive classification of mental disorders
Credited with developing the first counseling interventions, relying on many techniques still in use today:
Systematic diagnostic interviews, detailed history taking, trust building, dream interpretation, and acknowledgment of repressed feelings

Question 11

Freud

Answer 11

Plotted the anatomy of the **human nervous system **
Developed the first form of **local anesthesia for eye surgery **
Adapted technique of hypnosis for studying a person’s inner world
**Formulated models of personality development and psychopathology
Emphasized unconscious motives behind human behavior
Suggested that dreams have meanings that can be uncovered and interpreted
Studied the underlying structure of society
Developed the first formal methodology of counseling
he was the primary mentor of the first generation of counselors

Question 12

William James

Answer 12

American philosopher (1842–1910)
First to be awarded the title “Professor of Psychology”
Interested in the concepts of free will, consciousness, and adaptive functioning
Theorized that humans are creatures of emotion and action as well as thought and reason

Question 13

William James’s pragamatism

Answer 13

Instrumental in developing the philosophy of “pragmatism”
Believed the pursuit of knowledge is best directed toward finding useful tools that can be both applied to practical situations and scientifically validated

Question 14

Early 20th Century Changes

Answer 14

Social reform
Individual development could be assisted, directed, and guided
Specialty of career guidance
Industrial age was flourishing
Technical training and skilled workers were becoming necessary
New programs in vocational guidance

Question 15

Parson

Answer 15

Described a three-part model for career counseling (1909):
An analysis of one’s own personal interests, abilities, and aptitudes
An exploration of available occupations
The application of a systematic reasoning process to find a good match between the two

Question 16

Other Influences of Counseling Profession

Answer 16

Development of standardized testing during World War I as a means to measure aptitudes, abilities, and personality traits
The birth of the Veterans Administration after World War II
Resulted in the recruiting of professionals to help aid the adjustment of soldiers

The National Defense Education Act
Channeled more youth into the sciences after the Soviet Union launched Sputnik, demonstrating they were ahead in the space race

Evolution of vocational rehabilitation (working with those who are disabled) as a specialty
Creation of the first counseling services on college campuses

Establishment of a comprehensive mental health system
Launching of the American Personnel and Guidance Association as the first professional organization for counselors
Federal legislation such as the Americans with Disabilities Act, Vocational Education Act, and Work Incentives Improvement Act
Mandated assistance to those with disabilities
Spread of licensure laws across states and provinces
Granted greater legitimacy to counselors and family therapists
Increased cultural diversity in population through immigration
Required expertise in fostering greater harmony and adjustment

Managed care movement
Recognized the cost-effectiveness of using nonmedical practitioners to treat mental health problems

Question 17

Clifford Beers

Answer 17

Abused mental patient
Wrote A Mind That Found (1945)
Described experiences at the hands of an insensitive system that treated him as a lunatic rather than as a human being
Eventually led to establishment of the National Association for Mental Health
Proposed that what the emotionally disturbed person needs most of all is a compassionate friend

Question 18

Medical Model

Answer 18

Emphasized diagnosis of psychopathology
Patients viewed as afflicted with mental illness, treated by medical options
Electroconvulsive shock treatment
Psychosurgery (frontal lobotomies)
Psycho-pharmacology (medications)
Medical psychotherapy
Usually long-term psychoanalysis with sessions 3-4 times a week for 6+ years
Medical model is still at the core of many diagnostic systems, such as those used in a variety of clinical settings

Question 19

Carl Rogers

Answer 19

1902–1987
Person centered counseling
Argues the doctor–patient pattern of interaction proposed by medical model is inappropriate for working with vast majority of human beings
People with emotional problems are not “sick” or “mentally ill”
Most simply need a safe environment in which to work out their difficulties
Most effective vehicle is within context of therapeutic relationship

Question 20

Cognitive Behavioral Therapy

Answer 20

Albert Ellis (1962)
Aaron Beck (1967)
Emphasis on the role of thinking in the counseling process

Question 21

Generalist Approach

Answer 21

Robert Carkhuff and collaborators imposed a systematic and generalist approach to the task of helping
Counselors must be skilled, reliable, and capable of delivering effective levels of core skills
Defined skills and developed methods of assessing effectiveness
Emphasized the development of generic skills that provide a base for effective helping relationships

Question 22

Standards Established

Answer 22

1973: Association for Counselor Education and Supervision (ACES) developed a knowledge base to provide the foundation for future licensing efforts
Virginia: First state to institute licensing

Question 23

Curriculum Requirements for Accreditation of Degree Programs

Answer 23

Professional orientation, introducing you to the identity of your profession and specialty
Human growth and development, concentrating on background you will need to understand how people learn and grow
Social and cultural foundations, providing much of the theoretical background necessary for functioning effectively with diverse populations
. Assessment, including methods of gathering information, formulating diagnoses and treatment plans, and administering and interpreting tests
8. Research and evaluation, helping you to make sense of the professional literature, to read studies critically, and to construct legitimate evaluation methods in your work
9. Family systems theory and practice, preparing you to work with couples and families
Ethics, teaching you how to make decisions grounded in ethical principles and in the ethics codes of your professional associations and state regulatory agencies
Clinical specialty areas in addictions, psychopharmacology, child and adolescent counseling, sex abuse, and other areas

Question 24

Why Focus on Research?

Answer 24

Many practicing counselors see value in this concept because they are often faced with questions about the counseling process that can only be answered by research
Helps to determine which interventions work with individual clients or particular client populations

Question 24

How do we research outcomes?

Answer 24

Counseling research foundations (practitioners vs. researchers)
Counselors as scientist-practitioners

Question 25

Benefits of Research

Answer 25

Counselors can be capable of critical analysis of the various methodologies, statistical procedures, arguments, and conclusions of their professional literature
Train clinicians to think analytically, intentionally, and systematically about problems
3 important aspects (terminology, knowledge of the classics, know how)
By understanding that research can be quite focused and be done using a small population, practitioners who want to determine effectiveness in their work environment can proceed to engage in systematic study
Once research is understood and demystified, many practitioners recognize ways to use applied and descriptive research to help in their daily work

Question 26

Two types of research

Answer 26

Qualitative and Quantitative

Question 27

Quantitative Research

Answer 27

Researcher begins with a theory of how something works, then:
Develops a hypothesis that can be tested
Conducts a controlled experiment
Uses statistical procedures to evaluate whether the hypothesis was supported or rejected
Interprets results in light of the hypothesis and the broader theory that generated it
Examines implications for conducting effective counseling

Question 28

Quantitative Research

Answer 28

Understanding human phenomena requires that researchers find a way to “quantify” people’s experiences
Often accomplished through use of questionnaires or scales on which subjects might rate their experience

Question 29

Qualitative Research

Answer 29

Data collected are not numbers but rather what people say about their lives
Interviews or observations are often conducted in which participants are invited to share their experiences
After interviews are recorded, the researcher “codes” the transcripts in order to identify meaningful themes that capture the essence of the communications