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A & P II > Nutrition, Metabolism, & Temperature > Flashcards

Nutrition, Metabolism, & Temperature Flashcards

1
Q

What are nutrients?

A

-Substances found in food that are used by cells for growth, maintenance, & repair

  • Large amounts of macronutrients required (small amount of micronutrients required)
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2
Q

What are the 6 nutrients? Which ones are macronutrients & micronutrients?

A

1) Carbohydrates - Macro
2) Lipids- Macro
3) Proteins- Macro
4) Vitamins- Micro
5) Minerals- Micro
6) Water

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3
Q

What is the difference between micro and macro nutrients?

A

Macronutrients must be broken down by enzymes to be absorbed by small intestine. Micronutrients can be absorbed without being digest

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4
Q

Essential Nutrient

A
  • Substances that must be ingested because the body can’t manufacture them at all or can’t make enough needed.
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5
Q

Calorie

Kilocalorie

A
  • Calorie is the amount of energy (heat) necessary to raise the temperature of 1 g of water 1 degree C.
  • Kilocalorie= 1000 calories & is used to express the larger amounts of energy supplied by foods & released through metabolism
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6
Q

How much energy is released during metabolism of carb, protein, & fat?

What is the % of a typical diet for each?

A
  • Carbs & Proteins= 4 kcal
  • Fats/Lipids= 9 kcal
  • Carbs= 50-60%
  • Lipid= 35-45%
  • Protein= 10-15%
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7
Q

What are the 3 types of Carbohydrates?
Where do most carbohydrates from from?

A

1) Monosaccharides
2) Disaccharides
3) Polysaccharides

  • Plants. Except lactose which is found in milk & dairy products
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8
Q

What are the most common monosaccharides in the diet? Where are they found?

A
  • Glucose & Fructose
  • Glucose= Vegetables
  • Fructose= Fruits, berries, & honey.
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9
Q

What are the 3 common disaccharides & their sources?

A

1) SUCROSE- sugarcane, sugar beets, maple sugar, & honey (glucose molecule + fructose molecule)

2) MALTOSE (malt sugar)- germinating cereal (2 glucose molecules)

3) LACTOSE (milk sugar)- milk & dairy products (1 glucose molecule + 1 galactose molecule)

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10
Q

What are 3 complex carbohydrates (aka Polysaccharides) & how does the body use them?

A

1) CELLULOSE - can’t be broken down by the body. Instead provides fiber which makes it easier to poop.

2) GLYCOGEN - energy-storage molecule located in muscles & liver (can be quickly converted into glucose (used to produce ATP)

3) STARCH - energy-storage molecule found in plants (veg, fruit, & grain) (same function as Glycogen)

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11
Q

How does the body use glucose & other monosaccharides? (4)

A
  • During digestion, polysaccharides & disaccharides are split into monosaccharides and absorbed in the blood.
  • Liver converts fructose, galactose, & other monosaccharides absorbed by the small intestine into glucose
  • Glucose provides energy to make ATP molecules

Glucose carefully regulated by the body since the brain relies almost entirely on glucose for its energy

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12
Q

What is AMDR?
What is the recommended daily consumption of carbohydrates?

A
  • Acceptable Macronutrient Distribution Range (AMDR)
  • 45-65% of total kilocalories
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13
Q

What is the major source of lipids in the diet?
What are other sources?

A
  • Triglycerides aka Fats- 95% of lipids = 3 fatty acids + glycerol molecule
  • Cholesterol & Phospholipids (Lecithin) - 5%
  • Sources= Meat, Dairy products, eggs, coconut oil, corn oil
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14
Q

How many kilocalories are in a pound of body fat?

A

3500 kcal

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15
Q

Saturated vs. Unsaturated Fats

A
  • Saturated Fats= Covalent bonds between carbon atoms & fatty acids

-Unsaturated Fats= One or more double covalent bonds between carbon atoms & fatty acids

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16
Q

How does the body use Triglycerides? (Produces what, how much, Stored where, what uses it (5))

A

1) Triglycerides are used to produce ATP

2) Delivers more than 2x kilocalories as 1 gram of carb

3) Skeletal muscles derive most of their energy from triglycerides.

4) Stored in adipose tissue or in the liver

5) When needed, fatty acids released into blood to be used

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17
Q

How does the body use cholesterol, prostaglandins, & Lecithin? (3)

A

1) Cholesterol- used to form bile salts (needed for lipid digestion & absorption) and steroid hormones (reproductive hormones)

2) Prostaglandins- involved in inflammation, blood clotting, & tissue repair

3) Lecithin- phospholipid used to construct myelin sheaths around axons of neurons.

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18
Q

What is the recommended dietary intake of lipids?

A

1) 20-35% for adults
2) Saturated Fats should be no more than 10% of total kilocalories
3) Most lipids should come from polyunsaturated & monounsaturated fats (olive, corn, & peanut oils, fish, safflower, sunflower)

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19
Q

What are the essential fatty acids and function? (3)

A

1) Arachidonic Acid (omega-6 fatty acid)

2) EPA- omega-3 fatty acid

3) DHA- omega 3 fatty acid

-All work to synthesize prostaglandins which affect blood clotting (helps blood clot better hence reduced risk for heart attack when people ingest more foods containing them)

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20
Q

What are proteins? What are the 2 groups of proteins?

A
  • Chains of amino acids (20 kinds)
  • Essential & nonessential
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21
Q

Differentiate essential amino acids, conditionally essential amino acids, & nonessential amino acids (3)

A

1) Essential Amino acids- must be obtained through food, cannot be synthesized in the body.

2) Conditionally Essential amino acids- synthesized by the body under normal conditions (not normal conditions would be premature birth or metabolic diseases)

3) Nonessential amino acids- necessary to construct proteins but don’t need to be ingested because they can be synthesized from essential amino acids.

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22
Q

Complete vs Incomplete Proteins

A

1) Complete Protein- food that contains adequate amounts of all 9 essential amino acids (meat, fish, poultry, milk, cheese, eggs, & quinoa)

2) Incomplete Proteins- DO NOT (leafy greens, grains, legumes)

-BUT if 2 Incomplete Proteins- (such as rice & beans) are eaten together the amino acid composition complements the other and a complete protein is created.

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23
Q

Functions of proteins in the body (4)

A

1) Collagen protein provides structural strength to skin

2) Proteins used to make interactions of acting & myosin aka muscle contraction possible

3) Blood proteins prevent pH changes & promote clotting

4) Transport proteins move materials across membranes

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24
Q

What is the AMDR for protein?

What is Nitrogen Balance?

A
  • 10-35% of total kilocalories
  • Nitrogen content of ingested protein = nitrogen excreted from body (amino acids of proteins contain nitrogen)
  • Negative Nitrogen Balance= a starving person because the nitrogen gained in the diet is less than what is put out.

-Positive Nitrogen Balance = pregnant woman because more nitrogen going into produce new tissues than lost by excretion

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25
Q

What are vitamins, essential vitamins, & provitamins?

A

1) Vitamins= organic molecules that exist in very small quantities in food. Essential for normal metabolism

2) Essential Vitamins- must be obtained through diet

3) Provitamin- part of a vitamin that the body can convert into a functional vitamin EX: Beta carotene is a Provitamin the body can use to form Vitamin A.

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26
Q

How does the body use vitamins?

A
  • Uses them in their original or slightly modified form (instead of breaking them down)
  • If the chemical structure of a vitamin is destroyed it loses function (EX: overcooked food –> high heat causes chemical break down of vitamins)
  • Function as coenzymes
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27
Q

Fat-soluble vs. Water-soluble Vitamins (dissolve, absorb, length of stay, & examples)

A
  • Fat-Soluble= Dissolve in lipids, absorbed in intestine, & remain in body for a long time (too long could cause toxicity) –> Vitamins A, D, E, & K
  • Water-Soluble= Dissolve in water, absorbed in water of intestinal tract, & remain in the body for a short amount of time –> B Vitamins & Vitamin C
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28
Q

RDA

A

Recommended Dietary Allowances- nutrient intakes sufficient to meet the needs of nearly all people in certain age groups

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29
Q

Hypovitaminosis (meaning & 2 examples)

A
  • vitamin deficiency
    1) Rickets= low Vitamin D
    2) Pernicious Anemia= low Vitamin B12
30
Q

What are Minerals? 2 groups of Minerals

A
  • Inorganic nutrients necessary for normal metabolic functions

1) Major minerals- daily requirement of 100mg or more daily

2) Trace minerals- daily requirement of less than 100mg daily

31
Q

How much of our body weight is made of minerals and by which one the most?

Where else are minerals?

A

1) 4-5% of total body weight with majority being calcium stored in bones

2) Components of other molecules in the body (EX: coenzymes, vitamins, & hemoglobin)

32
Q

6 Minerals & their function (CCCIPS)

A

1) Calcium- bone & teeth formation, blood clotting, muscle activity, & nerve function

2) Chlorine- Blood acid-base balance

3) Copper- Hemoglobin & melanin production

4) Iron- component of hemoglobin, ATP production

5) Potassium- muscle & nerve function

6) Sodium- osmotic pressure regulation

33
Q

Metabolism

Catabolism vs. Anabolism

A
  • Metabolism= total for all the chemical reactions that occur in the body

-Catabolism AKA Degradative Reactions= type of metabolic process in which large molecules break down into smaller molecules and releases energy (powered by energy released from food which powers ATP production)

-Anabolism AKA Biosynthetic Reactions= type of metabolic process that requires energy to join smaller molecules together to form larger molecules (powered by energy released from ATP breakdown in body)

34
Q

Oxidation-Reduction Reactions (5)

A

1) chemical reactions responsible for transferring energy from the chemical bonds of nutrient molecules –> ATP molecules

2) Molecule is REDUCED when it GAINS electrons & OXIDIZED when is LOSES electrons.

3) Nutrient molecule = many hydrogen atoms covalently bonded to carbon atoms & since hydrogen is composed of an H+ proton & an electron = molecule highly reduced

4) When H+ (and associated electrons) are lost from nutrient molecule it loses energy & becomes oxidized.

5) Energy in the electron is then used to synthesize ATP

35
Q

How does the removal of hydrogen atoms from nutrient molecules result in a loss of energy from the nutrient molecule?

A

1) Nutrient molecules are made up of many hydrogen atoms.

2) Each hydrogen atom has 1 proton and 1 electron. –The high number of electrons are what make the nutrient molecule reduced aka high energy

3) When nutrient molecules lose hydrogen atoms and associated electrons it will become oxidized aka lose energy.

4) That energy is then used to synthesize ATP (and create energy elsewhere)

36
Q

What is the goal of Carbohydrate Metabolism?

How is Carbohydrate Catabolism performed and it’s 4 Steps?

A
  • to maintain a steady level of glucose in the body
  • it’s performed via cellular respiration

1) Glycolysis
2) Transition Step
3) Krebs Cycle
4) Electron transport chain

37
Q

Cellular Respiration

A
  • Type of metabolic pathway that humans use to make large quantities of ATP
  • Glucose molecules are broken down to release their energy. That energy is then stored into ATP molecules. –> total of 36 or 38 ATP from 1 glucose molecule

-Process requires O2 (aerobic respiration) i& produces CO2 as a waste product.

38
Q

What is the 1st Step of Cellular Respiration?

(what is it, location, & function (4))

A
  • Glycolosis
  • ONLY STEP THAT IS ANAEROBIC (no oxygen required)
  • Location= Cytosol (Cytoplasm)
    -Function= breakdown of glucose into 2 PYRUVATE molecules
39
Q

What happens during the 2nd Step of Cellular Respiration and what is it called? (4)

A
  • Transitional Step (Conversion Step)
  • Remains of glucose (from glycolysis) are modified in the MATRIX OF THE MITOCHONDRION
  • Conversion of Pyruvic Acid to Acetyl CoA
  • NO ATP MADE
40
Q

What happens during the 3rd Step of Cellular Respiration and what is it called?

A
  • Krebs Cycle aka Citric Acid Cyle
  • Modified remains of glucose are completely broken down in the MATRIX OF THE MITOCHONDRION –> produces 2 more ATP molecules
41
Q

What happens during the 4th Step of Cellular Respiration and what is it called?

A
  • Electron Transport Chain (ETC)
  • Energy from previous steps used to form 32 or 34 ATP molecules
  • Location= INNER MEMBRANE OF THE MITOCHONDRION
42
Q

Anaerobic Respiration

(what is it, what does it produce, how is it used (3))

A

1) breakdown of glucose in absence of oxygen.

2) in absence of oxygen, produces 2 molecules of Lactate & 2 molecules of ATP

3) ATP is an energy used during intense activities (exercise) when insufficient oxygen is delivered to tissues

43
Q

Anaerobic vs. Aerobic Respiration Results

A

-Anaerobic= glucose breakdown in absence of O2 that produces 2 Lactate molecules & 2 ATP molecules. –> Lactate is then converted to glucose (Cori Cycle) using aerobically produced ATP

-Aerobic= glucose breakdown in presence of O2 that produces CO2, water, & 32 ATP molecules

44
Q

What is the product of each phase of Aerobic Respiration? (4)

A

1) Glycolysis= 2 ATP, 2 NADH, 2 Pyruvate molecules

2) Conversion Step= 2 Pyruvate molecules converted into 2 Actyl-CoA molecules. ALSO 2 NADH & 2 CO2 molecules

3) Krebs (Citric Acid) Cycle= 2 ATP, 6 NADH, 2 FADH2, & 4 CO2 molecules

4) Electron-Transport Chain (ETC)= High energy electrons in NADH & FADH2 enter the ETC & used to synthesize ATP & water

45
Q

What is the molecule that moves electrons from the Citric Acid Cycle (Krebs) to the Electon-Transport Chain (ETC)?

A

NADH

46
Q

The CO2 you breathe out comes from…..

A

The food you eat

47
Q

What is the body’s main energy-storage molecules?

A

Lipids

48
Q

What are Triglycerides broken down into and by what process? (2)

A

1) Free fatty acids via Beta-Oxidation
(Free fatty acids turn into Acetyl-CoA via continuous Carbon atom removal and Acetyl-CoA then enters Krebs phase to generate ATP)

2) Glycerol via Gluconeogenesis (when glycerol enters glycolysis to produce ATP)

49
Q

Free Fatty Acids (definition & use)

A
  • Fatty acids produced by the breakdown of triglycerides in adipose tissue between meals and released into the blood.
  • Skeletal muscle and the liver use free fatty acids as a source of energy.
50
Q

Beta-Oxidation (definition & process (2))

A
  • Process by which body metabolizes fatty acids

-Series of reactions in which 2 Carbon atoms are continuously removed from a fatty acid chain to form acetyl-CoA until entire fatty acid chain is gone.

  • Acetyl-CoA then enters the Citric Acid Cycle (Krebs Cycle) and be used to generate ATP
51
Q

Ketogenesis

Ketosis (definition & condition that affect it)

A
  • Formation of ketone bodies due to large amounts of Acetyl-CoA molecules in the liver.
  • Excessive production of ketone bodies which are acidic and thus decrease blood pH
  • Conditions that speed up rate of lipid metabolism can speed up ketone body formation (EX= starvation, untreated diabetes Mellitus)
52
Q

Ketone Bodies (3)

A

1) Acetoacetic acid, B-hydroxybutyric acid, & Acetone together

2) Forms when 2 extra Acetyl-CoA molecules combine

3) Ketone bodies then released into blood & converted back to Acetyl-CoA which enters Citric Acid Cycle to produce ATP

53
Q

Protein Metabolism (4)

A

1) Proteins= polymers of amino acids & they’re broken down into individual amino acids in small intestine

2) Once absorbed into blood amino acids quickly taken up by cells (especially in the liver)

3) Primary function = synthesize proteins & Secondary function= energy source

4) AMINO ACIDS NOT STORED IN THE BODY (unlike Glycogen & Triglycerides)

54
Q

Oxidative Deamination

A

Removal of the amine group of an amino acid to form a keto acid, ammonia, & NADH.

55
Q

How are proteins (amino acids) used to produce energy? (2)

A

1) Through Oxidative Deamination, proteins are broken down into NADH which can enter electron-transport chain to produce ATP

2) Amino acids can be converted into molecules of carbohydrate metabolism (I.E. Pyruvate or Acetyl-CoA) OR Keto acid which enters the Citric Acid Cycle (Krebs).

56
Q

Glycogenesis (3)

A

1) Formation of glycogen from glucose molecules triggered by excess glucose in blood.

2) How body regulates blood glucose level.

3) Excess glucose present will trigger glycogenesis and allow cells to store glucose in the form of glycogen.

57
Q

Lipogenesis (2)

A

1) Process by which excess glucose (and amino acids) are used to synthesize lipids.

2) Common product= triglycerides

58
Q

Glycogenolysis (2)

A

1) Process by which cells break down glycogen when blood glucose levels decrease

2) SKELETAL MUSCLES CAN NOT RELEASE GLUCOSE INTO THE BLOOD (lack necessary enzymes to convert glucose-6-phosphate group into glucose.) ONLY LIVER CAN.

59
Q

Gluconeogenesis (2)

A

1) Process of synthesizing glucose from noncarbohydrate sources (such as amino acids & glycerol)

2) Triggered by inadequate levels of liver glycogen supplying glucose (needed especially for brain functions)

60
Q

Absorptive State (def & duration)

A

1) The period almost immediately after a meal when nutrients are bring absorbed through the intestinal wall into the circulatory & lymphatic systems.

2) Lasts about 4 hours after each meal

61
Q

How are nutrients dispersed during the Absorptive State? (3)

A

1) Cells use most of the glucose that enters the blood for energy their use during this time. –> Remaining glucose converted into glycogen or lipids.

2) Most absorbed lipids deposited in adipose tissue

3) Absorbed amino acids used by cells in protein synthesis, some used for energy, & some enter liver to be converted into lipids or carbohydrates

62
Q

Postabsorptive State (when, important process & why (3))

A

1) Occurs late in the morning, late in the afternoon, or during the night after each absorptive state is concluded.

2) During this time blood glucose levels are maintained by conversion of other molecules to glucose

3) Maintainence of normal blood glucose levels is vital to the body’s homeostasis (especially for normal brain functioning)

63
Q

What are 3 sources the body uses to maintain blood glucose levels during the post absorptive state?

A

1) Glycogen stored in the liver
2) Glycogen stored in skeletal muscles.
3) Lipids become an energy source via Acetyl-CoA

64
Q

Metabolic Rate (def, what is used to measure it (4))

A

1) Total amount of energy produced and used by the body per unit of time

2) ATP is produced and used at the same rate (less than 1 minute) so metabolism can be measured using ATP

3) ATP involves use of O2 so metabolic rate estimated by measuring amount of O2 used per minute.

4) 1 liter of O2 consumed by body= 4.825 kcal of energy

65
Q

What are the 3 ways the body consumes energy?

A

1) Basal Metabolism
2) Thermic effect of food
3) Muscular activity

66
Q

Basal Metabolic Rate (BMR) (def, measurement, amounts, activities (4))

A

1) Energy needed to keep the resting body functional

2) Determined by measuring the O2 consumption a person who is awake but restful and hasn’t eaten for 12 hours.

3) Accounts for 60% of energy expenditure

4) Supports active-transport mechanisms, muscle tone, maintenance of body temp, & heart beat –> higher BMR= a lot of toned muscle, young children, fever, being a male (since they have more muscle tissue), being pregnant

67
Q

Thermic Effect of Food- Metabolism (2)

A

1) Energy used during the process of digestion and absorption of food (energy to produce secretions, motility of digestive tract, etc).

2) Accounts for 10% of body’s energy expenditure

68
Q

Muscular Activity- Food

A

1) Physical activity resulting from skeletal muscle movements

2) Accounts for 30%

3) Only portion of energy use that a person can reasonably control

69
Q

What atom is a major player in the production of energy from nutrient molecules?

A

Hydrogen

70
Q

Anaerobic vs. Aerobic Respiration

A

1) Aerobic respiration requires oxygen, Anaerobic does not

2) Aerobic respiration produces more ATP

71
Q

Each NADH molecule fed into the electron transport chain produces how many ATPs?

A

3

72
Q
A

A & P II (15 decks)

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