NO LECTURE NOTES JUST READING Lecture 1 - Psychological Functions of the Cortex

Question 1

(reading 63-66):

What parts of the brain greatly enlarge the surface area of the cortex?

Answer 1

(reading 63-66):

• sulci (small grooves)
• fissures (large grooves)
• gyri (bulges between adjacent sulci or fissures)

greatly enlarge the surface area of the cortex, compared with a smooth brain of the same size. In fact, two-thirds of the surface of the cortex is hidden in the grooves; thus, the presence of gyri and sulci triples the area of the cerebral cortex. The total surface area is approximately 2360 cm2 (2.5 ft2), and the thickness is approximately 3 mm.

Question 2

(reading 63-66):

Describe the term “white matter”.

Answer 2

(reading 63-66):

The large concentration of myelin around these axons gives this tissue an opaque white appearance—hence the term white matter.

Question 3

(reading 63-66):

Define the forebrain.

Answer 3

(reading 63-66):

The most rostral of the three major divisions of the brain; includes the telencephalon and diencephalon.

Question 4

(reading 63-66):

Define the cerebral hemisphere.

Answer 4

(reading 63-66):

(sa ree brul) One of the two major portions of the forebrain, covered by the cerebral cortex.

Question 5

(reading 63-66):

Define the subcortical region.

Answer 5

(reading 63-66):

The region located within the brain, beneath the cortical surface.

Question 6

(reading 63-66):

Define the sulcus (plural: sulci)

Answer 6

(reading 63-66):

(sul kus, sul sigh) A groove, smaller than a fissure, in the surface of the cerebral hemisphere.

Question 7

(reading 63-66):

Define the fissure.

Answer 7

(reading 63-66):

A major groove in the surface of the brain; it is larger than a sulcus.

Question 8

(reading 63-66):

Define the gyrus (plural: gyri)

Answer 8

(reading 63-66):

(jye russ, jye rye) A convolution of the cortex of the cerebral hemispheres, separated by sulci or fissures.

Question 9

(reading 63-66):

Define the primary visual cortex.

Answer 9

(reading 63-66):

The region of the posterior occipital lobe whose primary input is from the visual system.

Question 10

(reading 63-66):

Define the calcarine fissure.

Answer 10

(reading 63-66):

(kal ka rine) A fissure located in the occipital lobe on the medial surface of the brain; most of the primary visual cortex is located along its upper and lower banks.

Question 11

(reading 63-66):

Define the primary auditory cortex.

Answer 11

(reading 63-66):

The region of the superior temporal lobe whose primary input is from the auditory system.

Question 12

(reading 63-66):

Define the lateral fissure.

Answer 12

(reading 63-66):

The fissure that separates the temporal lobe from the overlying frontal and parietal lobes.

Question 13

(reading 63-66):

Define the primary somatosensory cortex.

Answer 13

(reading 63-66):

The region of the anterior parietal lobe whose primary input is from the somatosensory system.

Receives information from the body senses.

Different regions of the primary somatosensory cortex receive information from different regions of the body.

With the exception of olfaction and gustation (taste), sensory information from the body or the environment is sent to the primary sensory cortex of the contralateral hemisphere. Thus, the primary somatosensory cortex of the left hemisphere learns what the right hand is holding, the left primary visual cortex learns what is happening toward the person’s right, and so on.

Question 14

(reading 63-66):

Define the central sulcus.

Answer 14

(reading 63-66):

(sul kus) The sulcus that separates the frontal lobe from the parietal lobe.

Question 15

(reading 63-66):

Define the primary motor cortex.

Answer 15

(reading 63-66):

The region of the posterior frontal lobe that contains neurones that control movements of skeletal muscles.

Question 16

(reading 63-66):

Define the frontal lobe

Answer 16

(reading 63-66):

The anterior portion of the cerebral cortex, rostral to the parietal lobe and dorsal to the temporal lobe.

Question 17

(reading 63-66):

Define the parietal lobe

Answer 17

(reading 63-66):

(pa rye i tul) The region of the cerebral cortex caudal to the frontal lobe and dorsal to the temporal lobe.

Neurons in different parts of the primary motor cortex are connected to muscles in different parts of the body. The connections, like those of the sensory regions of the cerebral cortex, are contralateral; the left primary motor cortex controls the right side of the body and vice versa.

Question 18

See figure 8 on page 62.

Answer 18

:)

Question 19

See figure 9 on page 63.

Answer 19

:)

Question 20

(reading 63-66):

Define the temporal lobe.

Answer 20

(reading 63-66):

(tem por ul)
The region of the cerebral cortex rostral to the occipital lobe and ventral to the parietal and frontal lobes.

Question 21

(reading 63-66):

Define the occipital lobe.

Answer 21

(reading 63-66):

(ok sip i tul) The region of the cerebral cortex caudal to the parietal and temporal lobes.

Question 22

(reading 63-66):

Define the sensory association cortex.

Answer 22

(reading 63-66):

Those regions of the cerebral cortex that receive information from the regions of primary sensory cortex.

Circuits of neurons in the sensory association cortex analyze the information received from the primary sensory cortex; perception takes place there, and memo- ries are stored there. The regions of the sensory association cortex located closest to the primary sensory areas receive information from only one sensory system. For example, the region closest to the primary visual cortex analyzes visual information and stores visual memories. Regions of the sensory association cortex located far from the primary sensory areas receive information from more than one sensory system; thus, they are involved in several kinds of perceptions and memories. These regions make it possible to integrate information from more than one sensory system.

Question 23

(reading 63-66):

Define the motor association cortex.

Answer 23

(reading 63-66):

The region of the frontal lobe rostral to the primary motor cortex; also known as the premotor cortex.

Question 24

(reading 63-66):

Define the prefrontal cortex.

Answer 24

(reading 63-66):

The region of the frontal lobe rostral to the motor association cortex.

Question 25

(reading 63-66):

Define the corpus callosum.

Answer 25

(reading 63-66):

(ka loh sum) A large bundle of axons that interconnects corresponding regions of the association cortex on each side of the brain.

Question 26

(reading 63-66):

Define the neocortex.

Answer 26

(reading 63-66):

The phylogenetically newest cortex, including the primary sensory cortex, primary motor cortex, and association cortex.

Question 27

(reading 63-66):

Define the limbic cortex.

Answer 27

(reading 63-66):

Phylogenetically old cortex, located at the medial edge (“limbus”) of the cerebral hemispheres; part of the limbic system.

Question 28

(reading 63-66):

Define the cingulate gyrus.

Answer 28

(reading 63-66):

(sing yew lett) A strip of limbic cortex lying along the lateral walls of the groove separating the cerebral hemispheres, just above the corpus callosum.

Question 29

See figure 10 on page 65.

Answer 29

:)

Question 30

(reading 63-66):

Define the limbic system.

Answer 30

(reading 63-66):

A group of brain regions including the anterior thalamic nuclei,
amygdala, hippocampus, limbic cortex, and parts of the hypothalamus, as well as their interconnecting fiber bundles.

Question 31

(reading 63-66):

Define the hippocampus.

Answer 31

(reading 63-66):

A forebrain structure of the medial temporal lobe, constituting an important part of the limbic system; involved in learning and memory.

Question 32

(reading 63-66):

Define the amygdala.

Answer 32

(reading 63-66):

(a mig da la) A structure in the interior of the rostral temporal lobe, containing a set of nuclei; part of the limbic system.

Question 33

(reading 63-66):

Define the fornix.

Answer 33

(reading 63-66):

A fiber bundle that connects the hippocampus with other parts of the brain, including the mammillary bodies of the hypothalamus; part of the limbic system.

Question 34

(reading 63-66):

Define the mammillary bodies.

Answer 34

(reading 63-66):

(mam i lair ee) A protrusion of the bottom of the brain at the posterior end of the hypothalamus, containing some hypothalamic nuclei; part of the limbic system.

Question 35

(reading 63-66):

Define the basal ganglia.

Answer 35

(reading 63-66):

A group of subcortical nuclei in the telencephalon, the caudate nucleus, the globus pallidus, and the putamen; important parts of the motor system.

Question 36

(reading 63-66):

Define the nucleus.

Answer 36

(reading 63-66):

An identifiable group of neural cell bodies in the central nervous system.

Question 37

See figure 12 on page 66.

Answer 37

:)

Question 38

(reading 77-79):

Unilateral (“one-sided”) neglect occurs when the ________ is damaged.

Answer 38

(reading 77-79):

Unilateral (“one-sided”) neglect occurs when the right parietal lobe is damaged.

The parietal lobe contains the primary somato- sensory cortex. It receives information from the skin, the muscles, the joints, the internal organs, and the part of the inner ear that is concerned with balance. Thus, it is concerned with the body and its position. But that is not all; the association cortex of the parietal lobe also receives auditory and visual information from the association cortex of the occipital and temporal lobes. Its most important function seems to be to put together information about the movements and location of the parts of the body with the locations of objects in space around us.

If unilateral neglect simply consisted of blindness in the left side of the visual field and anesthesia of the left side of the body, it would not be nearly as interesting. But individuals with unilateral neglect are neither half blind nor half numb. Under the proper circumstances, they can see things located to their left, and they can tell when someone touches the left side of their bodies. But normally, they ignore such stimuli and act as if the left side of the world and of their bodies did not exist.

Remember that people with unilateral neglect fail to notice not only things to their left but also the left halves of things. But to distinguish between the left and right halves of an object, you first have to perceive the entire object— otherwise, how would you know where the middle was?

Question 39

(reading 77-79):

Describe the experiment conducted by Volpe, LeDoux, and Gazzaniga (1979) about unilateral neglect.

Answer 39

(reading 77-79):

Volpe, LeDoux, and Gazzaniga (1979) presented pairs of visual stimuli to people with unilateral neglect—one stimulus in the left visual field and one stimulus in the right. Invariably, the people reported seeing only the right-hand stimulus. But when the investigators asked the people to say whether or not the two stimuli were identical, they answered correctly even though they said that they were unaware of the left-hand stimulus.

Question 40

(reading 77-79):

Describe the experiment conducted by Bisiach and Luzzatti (1978) about unilateral neglect.

Answer 40

(reading 77-79):

Bisiach and Luzzatti (1978) demonstrated that unilateral neglect extends even to a person’s own visual imagery. The investigators asked two patients with unilateral neglect to describe the Piazza del Duomo, a well known landmark in Milan, the city in which they and the patients lived. They asked the patients to imagine that they were standing at the north end of the piazza and to tell them what they saw. The patients duly named the buildings, but only those on the west, to their right. Then the investigators asked the patients to imagine themselves at the south end of the piazza. This time, they named the buildings on the east—again, to their right. Obviously, they knew about all of the buildings and their locations, but they visualized them only when the buildings were located in the right side of their (imaginary) visual field.

Question 41

(reading 77-79):

Describe the rubber hand illusion experiment by Ehrsson, Spence, and Passingham (2004).

Answer 41

(reading 77-79):

Normal subjects were positioned with their left hand hidden out of sight. They saw a lifelike rubber left hand in front of them. The experimenters stroked both the subject’s hidden left hand and the visible rubber hand with a small paintbrush. If the two hands were stroked synchronously and in the same direction, the subjects began to experience the rubber hand as their own. In fact, if they were then asked to use their right hand to point to their left hand, they tended to point toward the rubber hand. However, if the real and artificial hands were stroked in different directions or at different times, the subjects did not experience the rubber hand as their own.

While the subjects were participating in the experiment, the experimenters recorded the activity of their brains with a functional MRI scanner. The scans showed increased activity in the parietal lobe, and then, as the subjects began to experience the rubber hand as belonging to their body, in the premotor cortex, a region of the brain involved in planning movements. When the stroking of the real and artificial hands was uncoordinated and the subjects did not experience the rubber hand as their own, the premotor cortex did not become activated. The experimenters concluded that the parietal cortex analyzed the sight and the feeling of brush strokes. When the parietal cortex detected that they were congruent, this information was transmitted to the premotor cortex, which gave rise to the feeling of ownership of the rubber hand.

Question 42

(reading 150-156):

Define the extrastriate cortex.

Answer 42

(reading 150-156):

A region of the visual association cortex; receives fibers from the striate cortex and from the superior colliculi and projects to the inferior temporal cortex.

Question 43

(reading 150-156):

Define the dorsal stream.

Answer 43

(reading 150-156):

A system of interconnected regions of visual cortex involved in the perception of spatial location, beginning with the striate cortex and ending with the posterior parietal cortex.

Question 44

(reading 150-156):

Define the ventral stream.

Answer 44

(reading 150-156):

A system of interconnected regions of visual cortex involved in the perception of form, beginning with the striate cortex and ending with the inferior temporal cortex.

Question 45

(reading 150-156):

Define the inferior temporal cortex.

Answer 45

(reading 150-156):

The highest level of the ventral stream of the visual association cortex; involved in the perception of objects, including people’s bodies and faces.

Question 46

(reading 150-156):

Define the posterior parietal cortex.

Answer 46

(reading 150-156):

The highest level of the dorsal stream of the visual association cortex; involved in the perception of movement and spatial location.

Question 47

(reading 150-156):

Define the colour constancy.

Answer 47

(reading 150-156):

The relatively constant appearance of the colors of
objects viewed under varying lighting conditions.

Question 48

(reading 150-156):

Define the cerebral achromatopsia.

Answer 48

(reading 150-156):

(ay krohm
a top see a) Inability to discriminate among different hues; caused by damage to area V8 of the visual association cortex.

Question 49

(reading 150-156):

Define visual agnosia.

Answer 49

(reading 150-156):

ag no zha
Deficits in visual form perception in the absence of blindness; caused by brain damage.

Question 50

(reading 150-156):

Define the lateral occipital complex (LOC)

Answer 50

(reading 150-156):

A relatively large region of the ventral stream of the visual association cortex that appears to respond to a wide variety of objects and shapes.

Question 51

(reading 150-156):

Define prosopagnosia.

Answer 51

(reading 150-156):

(prah soh pag no zha) Failure to recognize particular people by the sight of their faces.

Question 52

(reading 150-156):

Define the fusiform face area (FFA)

Answer 52

(reading 150-156):

A region of the visual association cortex located in
the inferior temporal; involved in the perception of faces.

Question 53

(reading 150-156):

Define the extrastriate body area (EBA)

Answer 53

(reading 150-156):

A region of the visual association cortex located in the lateral occipitotemporal cortex; involved in the perception of the human body and body parts other than faces.

Question 54

(reading 150-156):

See figure 21 on page 151.

Answer 54

(reading 150-156):

Question 55

(reading 150-156):

See figure 20 on page 151.

Answer 55

(reading 150-156):

Question 56

(reading 150-156):

See figure 22 on page 152.

Answer 56

(reading 150-156):

Question 57

(reading 150-156):

See figure 23 on page 153.

Answer 57

(reading 150-156):

Question 58

(reading 150-156):

See figure 24 on page 155.

Answer 58

(reading 150-156):

Question 59

(reading 150-156):

Define the parahippocampal place area (PPA)

Answer 59

(reading 150-156):

A region of the medial temporal cortex; involved in the perception of particular places (“scenes”).

Question 60

(reading 150-156):

See figure 25 on page 156.

Answer 60

(reading 150-156):

Question 61

(reading 150-156):

If you can be bothered, read the passage of these pages because I have only written notes on the definitions. There are some studies that might be useful.

Answer 61

(reading 150-156):

Question 62

(reading 174):

See figure 7 on page 174.

Answer 62

(reading 174):

Question 63

(reading 174):

Define the cohlear nucleus in the auditory system.

Answer 63

(reading 174):

One of a group
of nuclei in the medulla that receive auditory information from the cochlea.

Question 64

(reading 174):

Define the superior olivary complex in the auditory system.

Answer 64

(reading 174):

A group of nuclei in the medulla; involved with auditory functions, including localisation of the source of sounds.

Question 65

(reading 174):

Define the lateral lemniscus in the auditory system.

Answer 65

(reading 174):

A band of fibers running rostrally through the medulla and pons; carries fibers of the auditory system.

Question 66

(reading 174):

Define the tonotopic representation in the auditory system.

Answer 66

(reading 174):

(tonn oh top ik) A topographically organized mapping of different frequencies of sound that are represented in a particular region of the brain.

Question 67

(reading 174):

Define the core region in the auditory system.

Answer 67

(reading 174):

The primary auditory cortex, located on a gyrus on the dorsal surface of the temporal lobe.

Question 68

(reading 174):

Define the belt region in the auditory system.

Answer 68

(reading 174):

The first level of the auditory association cortex; surrounds the primary auditory cortex.

Question 69

(reading 174):

Define the parabelt region in the auditory system.

Answer 69

(reading 174):

The second level of the auditory association cortex; surrounds the belt region.

Question 70

(reading 174):

If you can be bothered, read the passage of these pages because I have only written notes on the definitions. There are some studies that might be useful.

Answer 70

(reading 174):

Question 71

(reading 352-357):

Define anterograde amnesia.

Answer 71

(reading 352-357):

Amnesia for events that occur after some disturbance
to the brain, such as head injury or certain degenerative brain diseases.

Question 72

(reading 352-357):

Define retrograde amnesia.

Answer 72

(reading 352-357):

Amnesia for events that preceded some disturbance to the brain, such as a head injury or electroconvulsive shock.

Question 73

(reading 352-357):

Define Korsakoff’s syndrome.

Answer 73

(reading 352-357):

Permanent anterograde amnesia caused by brain damage, usually resulting from chronic alcoholism.

Question 74

(reading 352-357):

Define confabulation.

Answer 74

(reading 352-357):

The reporting of memories of events that did not
take place without the intention to deceive; seen in people with Korsakoff’s syndrome.

Question 75

(reading 352-357):

See figure 20 on page 352.

Answer 75

(reading 352-357):

Question 76

(reading 352-357):

See figure 21 on page 353.

Answer 76

(reading 352-357):

Question 77

(reading 352-357):

See figure 22 on page 353.

Answer 77

(reading 352-357):

Question 78

(reading 352-357):

Define consolidation (in memory).

Answer 78

(reading 352-357):

The process by which short-term memories are converted into long-term memories.

Question 79

(reading 352-357):

See figure 23 on page 354.

Answer 79

(reading 352-357):

Question 80

(reading 352-357):

Define declarative memory.

Answer 80

(reading 352-357):

Memory that can be verbally expressed, such as memory
for events in a person’s past.

Question 81

(reading 352-357):

Define nondeclarative memory.

Answer 81

(reading 352-357):

Memory whose formation does not depend on the hippocampal formation; a collective term for perceptual, stimulus–response, and motor memory.

Question 82

(reading 352-357):

See figure 24 on page 356.

Answer 82

(reading 352-357):

Question 83

(reading 352-357):

See figure 25 on page 357.

Answer 83

(reading 352-357):

Question 84

(reading 352-357):

Define the perirhinal cortex.

Answer 84

(reading 352-357):

A region of limbic cortex adjacent to the hippocampal
formation that, along with the parahippocampal cortex, relays information between the entorhinal cortex and other regions of the brain.

Question 85

(reading 352-357):

Define the parahippocampal cortex.

Answer 85

(reading 352-357):

A region of limbic cortex adjacent to the hippocampal formation that, along with the perirhinal cortex, relays information between the entorhinal cortex and other regions of the brain.

Question 86

(reading 352-357):

Define episodic memory.

Answer 86

(reading 352-357):

Memory of a collection of perceptions of events organized in time and identified by a particular context.

Question 87

(reading 352-357):

Define semantic memory.

Answer 87

(reading 352-357):

A memory of facts and general information.

Question 88

(reading 352-357):

If you can be bothered, read the passage of these pages because I have only written notes on the definitions. There are some studies that might be useful.

Answer 88

(reading 352-357):

Question 89

(reading 373-383):

Define aphasia.

Answer 89

(reading 373-383):

Difficulty in producing or comprehending speech not produced by deafness or a simple motor deficit; caused by brain damage.

Question 90

(reading 373-383):

Define Broca’s aphasia.

Answer 90

(reading 373-383):

A form of aphasia characterized by agrammatism, anomia, and extreme difficulty in speech articulation.

Question 91

(reading 373-383):

Define a function word.

Answer 91

(reading 373-383):

A preposition, article, or other word that conveys little of the meaning of a sentence but is important in specifying its grammatical structure.

Question 92

(reading 373-383):

Define a content word.

Answer 92

(reading 373-383):

A noun, verb, adjective, or adverb that conveys meaning.

Question 93

(reading 373-383):

Define Broca’s area.

Answer 93

(reading 373-383):

A region of frontal cortex, located just rostral to the base of the left primary motor cortex, that is necessary for normal speech production.

Question 94

(reading 373-383):

See figure 1 on page 375.

Answer 94

(reading 373-383):

Question 95

(reading 373-383):

See figure 2 on page 375.

Answer 95

(reading 373-383):

Question 96

(reading 373-383):

Define agrammatism.

Answer 96

(reading 373-383):

One of the usual symptoms of Broca’s aphasia; a difficulty in comprehending or properly employing grammatical devices, such as verb endings and word order.

Question 97

(reading 373-383):

Define anomia.

Answer 97

(reading 373-383):

Difficulty in finding (remembering) the appropriate word to describe an object, action, or attribute; one of the symptoms of aphasia.

Question 98

(reading 373-383):

See figure 3 on page 376.

Answer 98

(reading 373-383):

Question 99

(reading 373-383):

Define Wernicke’s area.

Answer 99

(reading 373-383):

A region of the auditory association cortex on the
left temporal lobe of humans, which is important in the comprehension of words and the production of meaningful speech.

Question 100

(reading 373-383):

Define Wernicke’s aphasia.

Answer 100

(reading 373-383):

A form of aphasia characterized by poor speech comprehension and fluent but meaningless speech.

Question 101

(reading 373-383):

Define pure word deafness.

Answer 101

(reading 373-383):

The ability to hear, to speak, and (usually) to read and write without being able to comprehend the meaning of speech; caused by damage to Wernicke’s area or disruption of auditory input to this region.

Question 102

(reading 373-383):

See figure 5 on page 378.

Answer 102

(reading 373-383):

Question 103

(reading 373-383):

See figure 6 on page 379.

Answer 103

(reading 373-383):

Question 104

(reading 373-383):

See figure 7 on page 379.

Answer 104

(reading 373-383):

Question 105

(reading 373-383):

Define transcortical sensory aphasia.

Answer 105

(reading 373-383):

A speech disorder in which a person has difficulty comprehending speech and producing meaningful spontaneous speech but can repeat speech; caused by damage to the region of the brain posterior to Wernicke’s area.

Question 106

(reading 373-383):

See figure 8 on page 380.

Answer 106

(reading 373-383):

Question 107

(reading 373-383):

Define arcuate fasciculus.

Answer 107

(reading 373-383):

A bundle of axons that connects Wernicke’s area with
Broca’s area; damage causes conduction aphasia.

Question 108

(reading 373-383):

Define conduction aphasia.

Answer 108

(reading 373-383):

An aphasia characterized by an inability to repeat words that are heard but the ability to
speak normally and comprehend the speech of others.

Question 109

(reading 373-383):

See figure 11 on page 382.

Answer 109

(reading 373-383):

Question 110

(reading 373-383):

Define circumlocution.

Answer 110

(reading 373-383):

A strategy by which people with anomia find alternative ways to say something when they are unable to think of the most appropriate word.

Question 111

(reading 373-383):

See figure 12 on page 382.

Answer 111

(reading 373-383):

Question 112

(reading 373-383):

See figure 13 on page 383.

Answer 112

(reading 373-383):

Question 113

(reading 373-383):

See figure 14 on page 383.

Answer 113

(reading 373-383):

Question 114

(reading 373-383):

If you can be bothered, read the passage of these pages because I have only written notes on the definitions. There are some studies that might be useful.

Answer 114

(reading 373-383):

Question 115

(reading 411-414):

Define a hemorrhagic stroke.

Answer 115

(reading 411-414):

A cerebrovascular accident caused by the rupture of a
cerebral blood vessel.

Question 116

(reading 411-414):

Define an ischemic stroke.

Answer 116

(reading 411-414):

A cerebrovascular accident caused by occlusion of a blood vessel.

Question 117

(reading 411-414):

Define a thrombus.

Answer 117

(reading 411-414):

A blood clot that forms within a blood vessel, which may occlude it.

Question 118

(reading 411-414):

Define an embolus.

Answer 118

(reading 411-414):

(emm bo lus) A piece of matter (such as a blood clot, fat, or bacterial debris) that dislodges from its site of origin and occludes an artery; in the brain, an embolus can lead to a stroke.

Question 119

(reading 411-414):

See figure 3 on page 411.

Answer 119

(reading 411-414):

Question 120

(reading 411-414):

See figure 4 on page 412.

Answer 120

(reading 411-414):

Question 121

(reading 411-414):

See figure 5 on page 413.

Answer 121

(reading 411-414):

Question 122

(reading 411-414):

See figure 6 on page 413.

Answer 122

(reading 411-414):

Question 123

(reading 411-414):

See figure 7 on page 414.

Answer 123

(reading 411-414):

Question 124

(reading 411-414):

If you can be bothered, read the passage of these pages because I have only written notes on the definitions. There are some studies that might be useful.

Answer 124

(reading 411-414):