No defs deck Flashcards
How are headlands and bays formed?
1) Hard rock and soft rock next to water
2) A wave attack erodes the soft rock, but leaves the hard rock.
3) Differential erosion occurs.
4) The eroded area becomes a bay and the hard rock becomes a headland.
How are wave cut platforms made?
1) The sea attacks a weakness in the base of the cliff.
2) A wave-cut notch is created by erosional processes such as hydraulic action and abrasion.
3) As the notch becomes larger, the cliff becomes unstable and collapses as a result of gravity.
4) The cliff retreats inland.
5) The material from the collapsed cliff face is eroded and transported away.
6) This leaves a wave-cut platform; the process repeats over time.
What is the difference between weathering and erosion?
Weathering is the breakdown of material, but erosion is the wearing away of material.
How are caves, arches, stacks and stumps formed (CASS)?
- Wave attacks form faults in a cliff via hydraulic action and abrasion. The fault is enlarged to become a CAVE.
- The cave is widened and deepened by erosion (HA and abrasion) until it eventually cuts through the headland and becomes an ARCH.
- Undercutting from the waves and a lack of support for the roof of the arch leads the roof to collapse, leaving a STACK.
- Weathering and erosion undercut the back of the stack until it collapses, forming a stump.
How does longshore drift occur?
- The swash moves up the beach at an angle determined by the direction of the prevailing wind and waves.
- When the wave has broken, the backwash returns to the sea at a 90 degrees angle.
- In this way, sediment (sand and pebbles) are moved up the beach, and then they will collect against a groyne.
What are some features of a constructive wave?
- Wave height is small
- Less frequent.
- A strong swash moves sediment up the beach
- A weak backwash carries away little sediment.
- Gives the beach a gentler profile.
What are some features of a destructive wave?
- The wave height is larger
- More frequent
- A weak swash carries less sediment up the beach
- A strong backwash carries away lots of sediment
- This can build steep beaches.
How is a spit formed?
1) Sediment is carried by longshore drift.
2) When there is a change in the shape of the coastline, deposition occurs.
3) A long thin ridge of material is deposited. This is the spit.
4) A hooked end can form if there is a change in wind direction.
What is the difference between hard and soft engineering?
Hard engineering - artificial structures
Soft engineering - sustainable and natural approach
What is beach nourishment?
- Soft engineering
- Adding large quantities of sand or sediment to beaches.
- Combats erosion and increases beach width.
- Cheap
- Short term
- Maintains natural appearance of beach
What is managed retreat?
- Soft engineering, allows the erosion and flooding to happen
- Retreat further down the coast
- Allows the natural processes of the sea to occur
- Area of low value are allowed to flood, which protects areas of higher importance down the coast.
What is cliff stabilisation?
Soft engineering, cliffs are covered in matting and vegetation planted to help make them more stable and resistant to erosion.
What is a sea wall?
- Extremely effective
- Hard Engineering
- A wall placed at the base of a cliff to reflect the waves energy
- Extremely expensive (£10,000 per km)
- Ugly
What are gabions?
- Hard engineering
- Cages of wire filed with rocks to absorb the waves energy
- Effective
- Cheap
- Environmentally ugly
What are groynes?
- Hard engineering structures
- Used to trap sediment and build up beaches
- Protecting cliffs from erosion
- Causing increased erosion downstream
- Over a 25-30 year period.
What are rip raps?
- Hard engineering
- Large rocks placed at the bottom of the cliff to absorb wave energy
- Effective at dispersing wave energy
- Cheap
- Ugly
What are some causes of local environmental issues?
- Finchley Road nearby.
- A highly populated area with a number of schools close by, which greatly increases traffic, congestion and litter.
- The average Camden resident emits 15 tonnes of CO2 annually, compared to the UK average of 13 tonnes.
What are some solutions for local environmental issues?
- Changing street lights to energy-efficient LED lights.
- Fitting 184 solar panels to the Swiss Cottage library.
- The councils energy is supplied by renewable sources.
- Increased cycle routes.
- Camden Forest 2025 (aiming to plant 2025 trees by 2025).
- Visioning Camden 2030 (asking locals to imagine the borough in 2030 if the impacts of climate change had been dealt with.
What was the result of the solutions for local environmental issues?
These efforts saw a reduction in the 2019/2020 carbon emissions by 51% compared to 10 years earlier.
What are some problems Camden is experiencing?
- Traffic and Transport.
- Food and Water waste.
- Energy use.
- Litter and waste.
- Air pollution.
- Light pollution.
How many national parks does the UK have?
15
What are the three aims of national parks?
1) Conserve and enhance the natural beauty, wildlife and cultural heritage.
2) Promote opportunities for understanding and enjoying national parks by the public.
3) To meet socio-economic needs of the local communities.
Where is Snowdonia National Park?
North Wales.
What are the benefits of tourism for Snowdonia National Park?
- Jobs for the locals
- Income for the local economy
- Preserves the local services (transport, shops, etc)
- Tourists enjoy the scenery.
What is the enhanced greenhouse effect?
A thick layer of gases put into our atmosphere.
Is nuclear renewable or non-renewable?
Non renewable, but unlike other non-renewable sources, it doesn’t emit CO2 emissions. However, nuclear waste has to be stored safely as it is dangerous.
What happened in the 21st century?
The ten warmest years on record.
Name three greenhouse gases.
CO2, methane and nitrous oxide.
What industries contribute to Global Warming?
Industry
Transport
Deforestation/burning
Landfill
Rice cultivation
Livestock
Fertilisers
Burning fossil fuels
Air conditioning
Describe the UK energy mix approximately on one day in March.
What are some impacts to our climate caused by global warming?
- Increase in land and ocean temperatures.
- Melting ice at poles and mountain glaciers.
- Rising sea levels.
- More extreme weather.
By the end of the century, if we fail to change our behaviour, how high will temperatures go?
3 degrees Celsius.
What is air pollution and how can we limit it?
Air pollution consists of chemicals or particles in the air that can harm the health of humans, animals and plants.
We can:
- Use public transport
- Use electric or hybrid cars
- Car share
- Use renewable energy sources
- Plant trees
- Turn of lights and devices when not in use
- Holiday locally or in the UK
What is water pollution and how can we limit it?
Water pollution is any form of contamination that people
put into water- sewage, chemicals, plastics.
We can:
- Reduce water use
- Use environmentally friendly cleaning products
- Buy organic food
- Take your rubbish with you
- Reduce use of plastic bags
- Be careful what you put down the drain or toilet.
What is land pollution and how can we limit it?
Land pollution is contamination of the land including soil
and the ground beneath, it includes litter, organic waste,
agriculture, mining and industry waste.
We can:
- Reduce what you buy
- Reuse items
- Recycle and compost
- Buy biodegradable items
- Store chemicals/waste in
containers that do not leak.
What happens when convection currents diverge and converge?
When they diverge, plates move apart.
When the converge, plates move towards each other.
How many major and minor plates are there?
7 major and 8 minor
Where do most of the world’s earthquakes and volcanoes occur?
On or near the plate boundaries.
Where can you find hotspots?
In places where the crust is very thin
Give an example of where a hotspot is.
Hawaii
Where is the largest concentration of volcanoes found and what is its name?
The Pacific Ocean - The Ring of Fire.
What are the 7 major plates called and where are they found?
How are some ways experts can estimate when an eruption is likely to happen?
Seismometers - an instrument that measures ground vibrations caused by a variety of processes.
Gas sensors - an instrument that detects carbon dioxide, sends data continuously via radio to an observatory.
Tilt-meters - when magma accumulates beneath the ground, the slope of adjacent areas will usually tilt away from the centre of uplift.
GPS satellites - detect motion at a volcano before any earthquakes occur.
How are some ways you can prepare for volcanic eruptions?
Evacuation - evacuating all the citizens before the volcano erupts.
Diverting the lava flow - changing the course of the lava to avoid areas of value.
Go bags - a bag of things you need to take in the case of an evacuation.
What are responses?
How countries and communities react to tectonic hazards and other disasters.
What are the two categories of responses?
Short-term/immediate - a response in days or weeks immediately after a disaster has happened. Short-term responses mainly involve search and rescue, helping the injured and providing key supplies.
Long-term - responses go on for months and years after a disaster. It involves rebuilding destroyed houses, schools, hospitals, etc. It also involves kick-starting the local economy.
What are the three types of impacts?
Social - direct impact on people.
Economic - impact on economic activities such as businesses.
Environmental - impact on the landscapes including water and air pollution.
Describe what happens on a constructive margin.
When plates move apart, magma from the mantle rises to construct new land in the form of a shield volcano.
Describe what happens on a destructive margin.
Usually involving an oceanic plate and a continental plate, they move towards each other, and at the collision, the oceanic plate subducts as it is denser. The plate melts in the mantle to form magma, which then escapes ad rises through a composite volcano (formed).
Describe what happens on a conservative margin.
The plates are moving past each other or are moving side by side at different speeds. Friction occurs and the plates get stuck. Pressure builds up, and when the pressure is released, it sends out huge amounts of energy causing an earthquake.
Describe what happens on a collision boundary.
Involving two continental plates, neither can sink so the goo upwards to form fold mountains. Earthquakes can occur.
What are the advantages and disadvantages of road transport?
Advantages:
- The speed of delivery is high
- Door-to-door service
Disadvantages:
- Emissions of noise pollution and toxic materials
- Possible traffic delay
What are the advantages and disadvantages of rail transport?
Advantages:
- Carrying capacity is high
-The rapid speed of delivery
Disadvantages:
- Timetables and routes restricted
- Expensive cost for construction and maintenance
What are the advantages and disadvantages of water transport?
Advantages:
- It has a high carrying capacity
- Cost effective for heavy and bulky goods
Disadvantages:
- It uses a high time for shipment
- The risk of accidents is high as the ship/boat could sink or lose cargo
What are the advantages and disadvantages of air transport?
Advantages:
- It is high speed
-There is no physical barrier to this mode of transportation
Disadvantages:
- It is the costliest out of all other modes of transportation
- It needs trained individuals for a successful flight
Why did containerisation lead to the decline of ports like The London Docklands?
Containers could be unloaded off ships further downstream and at new ports (e.g. Felixstowe).
How does containerisation improve global trade?
The products are all corrugated in steel boxes of standard size so they can easily be transferred between different modes of transport - ship, lorry, train, etc.
How do all industries’s operate systems work?
All industries operate systems are based on input, processing and output.
How does economic development and employment change between LICs, MICs and HICs?
Countries in the early stages of development usually have a high percentage of people in the primary sector, because most people are engaged in agricultural activities. As a country begins to develop an industrial base, there is an increase in the secondary sector, and an increase in machinery on farms means fewer people are needed. People tend to migrate to urban areas to get jobs in factories. When a country becomes more economically developed, there is a greater demand for services such as education, healthcare and tourism, increasing the tertiary sector.
How does Income per person evaluate the standard of living and the quality of life of the population?
Determines the average per-person income for an area (often called GNI per capita (gross national income per person).
How does Life expectancy evaluate the standard of living and the quality of life of the population?
Estimate of the average age that member of a particular population group will be when they die.
How does Health evaluate the standard of living and the quality of life of the population?
Access to healthcare affects life expectancy and quality of life.
How does Literacy evaluate the standard of living and the quality of life of the population?
The ability to read and write affects the jobs available to people and also education around issues like health.
How does Housing evaluate the standard of living and the quality of life of the population?
Access to a safe a healthy home is an important factor when considering the quality of life.
How does Economic growth evaluate the standard of living and the quality of life of the population?
The increase in the value of an economy’s goods and services creates more profit for businesses.
What are some factors to consider when choosing the location of an industry?
- Access/location of raw materials
- Access to energy supply
- Site - flat land, room to expand
- Labour - cost, skill level, quantity
- Proximity to market
- Transport routes
- Cost of land
- Capital (money to invest)
- Greenfield/brownfield site
- Government policies
How have industries developed over time in the UK?
What are the five types of transportation?
Traction, saltation, suspension, solution, floatation.
What are some characteristics of the Upper Valley?
- Vertical erosion with hydraulic action, abrasion and attrition being the dominant processes.
- Traction and saltation at high flow.
- Load size is large and angular.
- V shaped valleys.
- Begins with the source.
What are some characteristics of the Middle Reaches?
- Channel is deeper and wider.
- Vertical erosion decreasing in importance, more lateral erosion and deposition.
- Suspension is the main mode of transport.
- Load is becoming smaller and less angular.
What are some characteristics of the Lower Reaches?
- Channel is at its widest and deepest, and may be tidal.
- Deposition more important than erosion.
- Fine material deposited.
- Large amount of load but the size is very small and very rounded.
- Ends in the mouth.
Is the profile of the river convex or concave and how does the gradient change?
The river has a concave profile. It starts of steep but then reduces with the distance from the source.
How are V-shaped valleys formed?
The river erodes downwards. The sides are cut down and attacked by weathering, and the loosening material slowly creeps down the slope by gravity (or is washed down by rainwater). This results in a steep sided valley with the shape of a V.
How is a waterfall formed?
There is a layer of hard rock on a layer of soft rock. The water erodes the soft rock below the hard rock, and creates a plunge pool and an overhang. The overhang eventually collapsed from its weight, erosion and weathering. The collapsed rocks are used as abrasion and erosion tools. The waterfall retreats back upstream to create a gorge.
Where are meanders found?
The middle and lower course.
How are meanders formed?
They are formed by deposition and erosion. The river encounters an obstacle, and has to change paths to get around it. The faster current is on the outside bend, the slower one on the inside bend. The outside bank is undercut from erosion, and the material is deposited on the inside of the bend. This forms a river cliff and a slip-off slope.
How are oxbow lakes formed?
They are formed when the meander neck becomes narrowed from erosion, and then the river breaks through the neck. Deposition then blocks off the meander.
How are floodplains made?
The river is kept within bounds by the banks. When a flood occurs, the river overflows onto the valley plain surrounding. Smaller deposition is carried further, while larger deposition is not carried far, as energy and speed are lost. The layers of successive flood material build up, and the levees increase in height.
How are deltas formed?
Deltas are formed when rivers empty water and sediment into seas, lakes or oceans. The rivers slows down as it approaches the body of water. The river then splits into distributaries. This causes bars or islands of sediment to build in the middle of the main channel. Layers of sediment build the delta out into the sea, as top set, fore set and bottom set beds.
What are some causes for floods?
Climate conditions - e.g. heavy rain
Physical features - e.g. steep sided valleys
Human factors - e.g. urbanisation
What are some effects for floods?
Buildings destroyed/damaged
People/animals injured (drown)
Infrastructure damages
Crops ruined
Insurance claims
Drinking water contaminated
How are some floods managed?
Hard engineering - more expensive, uses more raw materials and builds structures that alter the existing environment.
Soft engineering - works with the natural environment to prevent flooding, e.g. permeable paving, filter strips, wet basins or ponds, wetlands.
Is the world’s population evenly distributed?
No
Give an example of a densely populated area.
Western Europe
Give an example of a sparsely populated area.
Central Australia
Give four human and physical for densely populated areas? (positive factors)
P - pleasant climate
P - flat or gently sloping land
H - money available for investment
H - industry and jobs
More
P - good fertile soil
P - good food supply
P - good water supply
H - good communication links
H - natural resources for industry
Give 4 human and physical for sparsely populated areas? (negative factors)
P - too hot or cold
P - dense forest
H - poor transport links
H - little industry
More
P - too wet or dry
P - steep slopes
P - poor soils
P -poor water supply
P - few natural resources
H -lack of investment
What are 2 consequences of overpopulation?
- Lack of clean water (diseases like cholera from dirty water)
- Pressure on services
More:
- Lack of food
- Pressure on housing
- High energy needs
- Increasing pollution (link to global warming)
Why has the world population growth exploded?
It has expanded because of the developing countries, where the birth rate is higher than the death rate, causing a natural increase. This explosion started in 1950 and is predicted to peak in 2100.
What are the key factors in population change?
Birth Rate
Death Rate
Migration
What is a push factor (give 2 examples) ?
What forces people to leave (opposite of pull factor).
Unemployment
War or conflict
More
Low wages
Lack of medical care (illnesses go untreated)
No clean water
Poor school.
What is a pull factor (give 2 examples) ?
Something which attracts people into an area or another country (opposite of push factor).
More jobs
Better education and health services
Higher wages
Medical services
Improving life expectancy
What are the three group on a population pyramid?
- Young dependents: 0-15 age group, do not work and do not pay taxes.
- Economically active: 16-65 age group, working age and can provide taxes.
- Elderly dependents: 65+ age group, retired, do not work and do not pay taxes.
How does a population pyramid vary between developing and developed countries?
Developing countries (e.g. Kenya) have pyramids with a wide base, which shows a high birth, however the top is narrow, which shows a low life expectancy.
Developed countries (e.g. Germany) have pyramids with a narrow base, which shows a low birth rate, whereas the top is much wider than a developing country, which shows a long life expectancy.
What is the DTM?
The Demographic Transition Model is a theory that suggests each country’s total population growth rate cycles through the five different stages as the country develops economically.
What are 2 reasons that developing countries have high birth rates compared to developed countries?
- Children needed for farming
- High infant mortality rates
More
- Children needed to look after the elderly
- No sex ed
- No contraception
- Young marriages
- Boys preferred
- Large families have higher status
- Woman have no career
- Young aren’t travelling / no university
Humidity
The moisture in the air
What is the difference between weather and climate?
Weather - short term (day to day) variation in weather
Climate - general weather patterns over many years
Examples of extreme weather events
Droughts, wildfires, and hurricanes
When do droughts occur?
When there is abnormally low rainfall for an extended period of time
What are the six main climate zones?
- Polar/sub-polar
- Temperate
- Arid
- Mountainous
- Tropical
- Mediterranean
What are the factors affecting temperature?
Latitude
Altitude
Distance from the Sea
Ocean Currents
Prevailing Wind
What is latitude?
How north or south a location is from the equator
What is altitude?
The height of an object or location above a fixed reference point, such as sea level
What is distance from the sea?
The land warms up and cools down more quickly than the sea; places further inland become hotter in summer and colder in winter.
What is ocean currents?
Continuous movements of seawater in a specific direction
What is prevailing wind?
The most common direction from which the wind blows
What can cause microclimates?
Both natural and human factors.
What are the factors affecting a microclimate?
Physical features
Aspect
Buildings
Surface
Shelter
What is physical features?
Trees, lakes, rivers, hills
What are buildings?
They offer shelter, but can funnel winds, give off heat and make shadows
What is aspect?
Direction in which a place is facing in relation to the sun
What is surface?
It influences air temperature - artificial surfaces warm up faster than natural ones
What is shelter?
Buildings, natural features provide shelter and reduce wind, making it feel warmer
What are the three main types of rainfall?
Relief, convectional, and frontal rainfall
What is relief rainfall?
What is convectional rainfall?
What is frontal rainfall?
