NML

Question 1

Aquinas on abortion:

Answer 1

-Aquinas himself held that a person with a rational soul is present at around 60-80 days after conception.

-Some will draw the conclusion that this means that abortion before the rational soul is present (60-80 days) is justified. However, Aquinas never makes this claim.

-The alternative is to conclude that Aquinas is generally arguing against abortion.

Question 2

Worship god - abortion

Answer 2

Abortion goes against Divine revelation and scripture. I.e. Ten Commandments ‘Do not kill.’

Question 3

Ordered society - abortion

Answer 3

Disorders society as it stops the extension of the family unit, in which God intended.

Question 4

Reproduction - abortion

Answer 4

Stops reproduction from occurring.

Question 5

Educate young - abortion

Answer 5

No potential for new education.

Question 6

Preserve life - abortion

Answer 6

The embryo is considered a life from conception when the soul is made in imago dei.

Question 7

Aquinas on abortion

Answer 7

-It is certainly the case that abortion at any stage fails all the tests for Aquinas’ NML. It violates the primary principle of defending innocent life.

-It also breaks the worship God primary principle because God is creator of life.

-The Catholic Church reinforces the NML view by forbidding abortion in all instances apart from the principle of double effect.

Question 8

Principle of double effect

Answer 8

-The Principle of Double Effect is used to determine when an action which has two effects, one good and one evil, may still be chosen without sin.

-St. Thomas Aquinas used it to show that killing in self-defence is justified (Summa Theologiae).
It would allowunder certain conditionsthe toleration of the unintended evil of another for a proportionate reason.

-All four conditions must be satisfied:
1. The action must be morally good, or indifferent, as to object, motive and circumstances.
2. The bad effect(s) may only be tolerated, not directly willed.
3. The good effect must be caused at least as directly as the bad.
4. The good effect(s) must be proportionate to compensate for the bad effect(s).

Question 9

Ectopic pregnancy

Answer 9

-This is a pregnancy where the fertilised embryo begins to develop in the fallopian tubes.

-This is a dangerous pregnancy.

-However, abortion is not allowed because it uses a bad means to a good end.

-That is killing the foetus to save the mother’s life.

Question 10

Cancerous womb

Answer 10

-Indirect Abortion is allowed

-This is because it uses a good means to a good end and a bad end.

-That is, a hysterectomy that will save her life but kill the foetus.

-And what is important here is the death of the foetus is the unintended side-effect of the hysterectomy.

-And the death of the foetus is not the means of saving the woman’s life – the hysterectomy is!

Question 11

Louis Pojman

Answer 11

-When a woman has a cancerous womb, she could have a hysterectomy in order to save her life.

-Removing the cancerous uterus is morally good, and the death of the foetus is the unintended side-effect of the hysterectomy.

-“… given the doctrine of double effect, the woman is really lucky to have a cancerous uterus.’

Question 12

Ordered society

Answer 12

-Experimentation on human embryos could lead to disorder.

-Although current UK law permits experimentation up to 14 days this could be the “thin end of the wedge”.

-What is next? Experimenting on 3 month foetuses?

-In 2018 there was an appeal to extend experimentation to 28 days.

-Possibility of disorder is also great!

Question 13

Worship god - embryo

Answer 13

-Embryo research goes against Divine revelation and scripture:

-‘Before I formed you in the womb I knew you.’

Question 14

Defend life - embryo

Answer 14

Life begins at conception, when God gives the fertilised egg a soul and creates life in his ‘image and likeness.’

Question 15

Aquinas on embryo research and cloning

Answer 15

-Aquinas’ NML would reject embryo research and cloning, since they both abandon the usual methods of procreation through loving sexual relationships.

-Aquinas would see this as a failure to worship God, who is the creator of life.

-It also breaks ‘order in society’. Scientific reproduction removes the necessity of male/female marriages which is promoted by NML and the Catholic Church.

Question 16

Embryo research and cloning

Answer 16

-The genetic blueprint of a human is present at the moment of conception, so biologically, a human becomes an individual person at that point.

-This means any experimentation even within the 14-day window breaks the commandment ‘not to murder’

-Stem cell research to cure disease does not pass ‘double effect’ rule. You are using a bad means to a good end.

-This is a form of ‘playing God’ and breaks the sanctity of life principle

Question 17

Ordered society - designer babies

Answer 17

-Do designer babies ‘disorder’ society?

-NML insists that we do nothing to detract from the wonderful way in which God has ordained the universe and life.

-Designer babies are the direct interference with what God has made and therefore disorders society.

-In addition we could end up with a situation where parents are selecting height, eye colour, intelligence etc…

-The possibility of abuse and disorder is great.

Question 18

Designer babies

Answer 18

-Human life is created ‘Imago Dei’ so human reproduction is not to be tampered with.

-To design babies so that the image of the human race is changed into a trans-human state goes against God’s intentions.

-The production of designer babies would violate the primary precepts of living in an ordered society, since it would lead to an even bigger gap between the rich and the poor.

Question 19

Proportionalism

Answer 19

-Natural Moral LawProportionalism is associated particularly with Bernard Hoose and Richard McCormick.

-It responds tonatural law by working within its framework, but without insisting on a fixed, inflexible and absolutist interpretation, if a greater good is served by laying it aside.

Question 20

Proportionalism - DB

Answer 20

-May allow for designer babies (IN CERTAIN CIRCUMSTANCES).

-Although the classic version of NML (Aquinas) would reject designer babies because the precepts are broken the proportionalist approach may justify designer babies as the greater good is served.

-E.g. if a child was going to have cystic fibrosis then this gene could be removed.

-Proportionate good is achieved.

Question 21

Proportionalism - stem cell research

Answer 21

-May allow for stem cell research.

-Although the classic version of NML would reject stem cell research because the precepts are broken, the

-Proportionalist approach may justify research as the greater good is served.
E.g. if experimentation on embryos led to a cure for Alzheimer’s then the greater good is served.

Question 22

Ordered society - capital punishment

Answer 22

Does capital punishment ‘disorder’ society?

-Possibly – we could argue it is legalised killing that could seriously disrupt the bedrock principles of society like to protect and to not harm.

-Possibly not – capital punishment could be seen as a protective measure for society. Would-be murderers may think twice because they know they could be executed for that crime.

-Response – murder is rarely planned. It happens in the heat of the moment. E.g. gun fight, wife kills husband in response to domestic violence, or partner finds their partner cheating and batters them with the microwave

Question 23

Proportionalism - capital punishment

Answer 23

-May allow for capital punishment

-Although the classic version of NML would reject capital punishment because the precepts are broken, the

-Proportionalist approach may justify capital punishment as the greater good is served.

-If capital punishment generally deters the act of murder happening then you are better serving the precept of preservation of life.

Question 24

Aquinas rejected euthanasia or suicide -quote

Answer 24

The passage from this life to another and happier one is subject not to man’s free will but to the power of God. Hence it is not lawful for man to take his own life that he may pass to a happier life,

Question 25

Aquinas - suicide

Answer 25

-According to Aquinas, then, the most fearsome evil is not pain or disability, but death itself.

-Suicide (he argues) is contrary to the natural inclination of any life form to stay alive; it injures the community as a whole; and life is God’s gift to humans, so is subject to his power.

Question 26

Worship god - euthanasia

Answer 26

It breaks Sanctity of Life, which is reveled to humans through scripture.

Question 27

Ordered society - euthanasia

Answer 27

It breaks order in society. For instance, many governments share the fear that if we legalized these acts, they would open the way to more abusive practices (slippery slope argument).

Question 28

Catholic Church - euthanasia

Answer 28

1980 Declaration on Euthanasia is the Catholic Church’s official document about euthanasia and reinforces Aquinas’ judgements.
Euthanasia and assisted suicide ignore the value of suffering for salvation (Christ on the cross).
However, the process of dying CAN be allowed to happen without medical intervention.

Question 29

The Role of Reason:

Answer 29

Aquinas believed that humans possess reason to discern right from wrong.

In the case of euthanasia, NML encourages individuals to use their reason to find alternative solutions to alleviate suffering without resorting to euthanasia.

Question 30

Real goods

Answer 30

-In NML, real goods are those things or actions that align with the primary precepts and apparent goods, on the other hand, are things or actions that may seem good on the surface but do not align with the primary precepts or the objective moral order.

-Euthanasia may be seen as an apparent good because it appears to alleviate suffering for a terminally ill individual.

-However, from the perspective of NML, it is considered an apparent good that goes against the real good of preserving life.

Question 31

Strengths of euthanasia within NML

Answer 31

-Emphasis on the Sanctity of Life: NML places a strong emphasis on the sanctity of human life, considering it a foundational principle.

-This perspective can be a strength in the context of euthanasia because it maintains a clear, consistent, and absolute prohibition against intentionally taking human life.

-Moral Clarity: NML provides a clear and unambiguous moral stance against euthanasia, with no room for human error.

Question 32

Weaknesses of euthanasia within NML

Answer 32

-Rigidity and Lack of Flexibility: It does not provide room for exceptions, even in cases of extreme suffering. This can be seen as a weakness when dealing with complex end-of-life situations where suffering is intense.

-Lack of Compassion: NML may not show a compassionate stance towards those in immense suffering.

-Reliance on Religious l Assumptions: NML is deeply rooted in religious assumptions about the nature of human beings and their purpose. This can be a weakness in a pluralistic society where not everyone shares religious beliefs, meaning that Natural Moral Law will not be a useful guide for all people.

Question 33

Intrinsically evil - abortion

Answer 33

Abortion is typically considered an intrinsically evil act, meaning it is wrong in itself and can’t be justified by good consequences. This is because it directly contradicts the primary precepts of preserving life and reproduction.

Question 34

Graded absolutism?

Answer 34

-Some scholars within the Natural Moral Law tradition, like Joseph F. Fletcher, argue for graded absolutism.

-This allows for exceptions in extreme cases, such as when the mother’s life is in danger, to prevent a greater evil.

-However, this is a controversial interpretation and not universally accepted within Natural Moral Law.

Question 35

Strengths of abortion within NML

Answer 35

-Clear Moral Foundation: Natural Moral Law provides a clear and unambiguous stance against abortion by emphasizing the sanctity of human life from conception. This clarity can be appealing to those who believe that life begins at conception and should be protected.

Question 36

Weaknesses of abortion within NML

Answer 36

-Rigidity: Natural Moral Law’s absolute prohibition of abortion can be criticized for its rigidity, especially when dealing with complex situations. For instance, it may not provide guidance on how to address cases of rape, incest, or when the mother’s life is at risk, where competing moral principles or concerns are at play.

-Limited Empirical Support: The concept of “natural purposes” on which Natural Moral Law is based may not be universally agreed upon, particularly in the context of early-stage embryos. The theory’s reliance on these premises can be questioned in the abortion debate.

Question 37

Weaknesses of embryo research within NML

Answer 37

-Rigidity: Natural Moral Law can be seen as rigid and dogmatic, especially when dealing with complex bioethical issues. It may not readily adapt to advancements in science and technology, such as in vitro fertilization or genetic modification.

-Lack of Nuance: may lack the nuance to address the nuances of cases involving severe genetic diseases or medical conditions where genetic modification could alleviate suffering without violating the sanctity of life.

-Balancing Conflicting Values: In the context of designer babies, it can struggle to balance the preservation of life with the autonomy and well-being of individuals. It may not adequately address cases where genetic modifications are aimed at preventing debilitating genetic conditions.

Question 38

Strengths of capital punishment within NML

Answer 38

-Ethical Absolutism: Natural Moral Law takes an absolutist stance on certain moral principles, such as the prohibition against killing innocent human beings.

-This stance can provide a strong ethical foundation for arguing against capital punishment, especially in cases where the guilt of the accused is in doubt.

Question 39

Weaknesses of capital punishment within NML

Answer 39

-Ethical Absolutism: Natural Moral Law takes an absolutist stance on certain moral principles, such as the prohibition against killing innocent human beings.

-This stance can provide a strong ethical foundation for arguing against capital punishment, especially in cases where the guilt of the accused is in doubt.

Question 40

Weaknesses of capital punishment wishing NML

Answer 40

-Inconsistent teachings: NML makes it clear that the preservation of life is a key primary precept, so it is contradictory for Capital Punishment to be allowed, to bring order to society.

-Surely life in prison with rehabilitation could achieve the same effect of orderly society?