Neuroscience, research, sleep, stress Flashcards
What are the 5 major psychology theoretical perspectives?
- Neuroscience
- Psychodynamic
- Behavioural
- Cognitive
- Humanistic
Neuroscience perspective.
The approach that views behaviour from the perspective of the brain, the nervous system, and other biological functions.
Psychodynamic perspective.
The approach based on the view that behaviour is motivated by unconcious inner forces over which the individual has little control.
Behavioural perspective.
The approach that suggests that observable, measurable behaviour should be the focus of study.
Cognitive perspective.
The approach that focuses on how people think, understand, and reason about the world.
Humanistic perspective.
The approach that suggests that all individuals naturally strive to grow, develop, and be in control of their lives and behaviour.
The approach that views behaviour from the perspective of the brain, the nervous system, and other biological functions.
Neuroscience perspective.
The approach based on the view that behaviour is motivated by unconcious inner forces over which the individual has little control.
Psychodynamic perspective.
The approach that suggests that observable, measurable behaviour should be the focus of study.
Behavioural perspective.
The approach that focuses on how people think, understand, and reason about the world.
Cognitive perspective.
The approach that suggests that all individuals naturally strive to grow, develop, and be in control of their lives and behaviour.
Humanistic perspective.
What is research?
Research is the systematic inquiry aimed at the discovery of new knowledge. It is a central component of the scientific method.
What are the 4 steps of the scientific method?
- Identifying questions of interest
- Formulating an explanation
- Carrying out the research designed to support or refute the explanation
- Communicating the findings
Archival Research
Research in which existing data, such as census documents, college records, and newspaper clippings, are examined to test a hypothesis.
E.g- looking at college records of students’ grades to see if there are gender differences in academic performance
Naturalistic observation
Research in which an investigator simply observes some naturally occurring behaviour and does not make a change in the situation.
E.g- sitting in on a class to see how frequently male students speak up in class, as opposed to how frequently female students speak up
Survey research
Research in which people chosen to represent a larger population are asked a series of questions about their behaviour, thoughts, or attitudes.
E.g- having a sample of people fill out a questionnaire about their study habits and grades
Case study
An in depth, intensive investigation of an individual or small group of people.
E.g- investigating an academically successful student with dyslexia to find out what specific behaviours led to his academic success. The findings of this investigation could then be used to help other students with dyslexia do better in school.
Correlational research
Research in which the relationship between 2 sets of variables is examined to determine whether they are associated or “correlated.”
E.g- comparing the amount of time spent on studying to students’ performance on a test to see if the amount of time students studied affected their test scores
Experiment
The investigation of the relationship between 2 (or more) variables by deliberately producing a change in one variable in a situation and observing the effects of that change on other aspects of the situation.
Research in which existing data, such as census documents, college records, and newspaper clippings, are examined to test a hypothesis.
E.g- looking at college records of students’ grades to see if there are gender differences in academic performance
Archival Research
Research in which an investigator simply observes some naturally occurring behaviour and does not make a change in the situation.
E.g- sitting in on a class to see how frequently male students speak up in class, as opposed to how frequently female students speak up
Naturalistic observation
Research in which people chosen to represent a larger population are asked a series of questions about their behaviour, thoughts, or attitudes.
E.g- having a sample of people fill out a questionnaire about their study habits and grades
Survey research
An in depth, intensive investigation of an individual or small group of people.
E.g- investigating an academically successful student with dyslexia to find out what specific behaviours led to his academic success. The findings of this investigation could then be used to help other students with dyslexia do better in school.
Case study
Research in which the relationship between 2 sets of variables is examined to determine whether they are associated or “correlated.”
E.g- comparing the amount of time spent on studying to students’ performance on a test to see if the amount of time students studied affected their test scores
Correlational research
The investigation of the relationship between 2 (or more) variables by deliberately producing a change in one variable in a situation and observing the effects of that change on other aspects of the situation.
Experiment
Advantages and disadvantages of correlational research.
Advantage: offers insight into relationships between variables
Disadvantage: cannot determine causality ie. cause and effect
Advantages and disadvantages of archival research.
Advantages- ease of data collection because data already exist; inexpensive
Disadvantages: dependent on availability of data; data may not be available or in the form you want
Advantages and disadvantages of naturalistic observation.
Advantages: Provides a sample of people in their natural environment; applies to real world
Disadvantages: Cannot control the natural habitat being observed; have to wait for behaviour to occur; behavior might change if people know they are being watched
Advantages and disadvantages of survey research.
Advantages: A small sample can be used to infer attitudes and behaviour of a larger population
Disadvantages: Sample may not be representative of the larger population; participants may not provide accurate responses to survey questions; biased sample and response
Advantages and disadvantages of case study.
Advantages: Provides a thorough, in-depth understanding of participants
Disadvantages: Results may not be generalizable beyond the sample
Advantages and disadvantages of experimental research.
Advantages: Experiments offer the only way to determine cause and effect relationship
Disadvantages: To be valid, experiments require random assignment of participants to conditions, well conceptualized independent and dependent variables, and other careful controls
Advantage: offers insight into relationships between variables
Disadvantage: cannot determine causality ie. cause and effect
Advantages and disadvantages of correlational research.
Advantages- ease of data collection because data already exist; inexpensive
Disadvantages: dependent on availability of data; data may not be available or in the form you want
Advantages and disadvantages of archival research.
Advantages: Provides a sample of people in their natural environment; applies to real world
Disadvantages: Cannot control the natural habitat being observed; have to wait for behaviour to occur; behavior might change if people know they are being watched
Advantages and disadvantages of naturalistic observation.
Advantages: A small sample can be used to infer attitudes and behaviour of a larger population
Disadvantages: Sample may not be representative of the larger population; participants may not provide accurate responses to survey questions; biased sample and response
Advantages and disadvantages of survey research.
Advantages: Provides a thorough, in-depth understanding of participants
Disadvantages: Results may not be generalizable beyond the sample
Advantages and disadvantages of case study.
Advantages: Experiments offer the only way to determine cause and effect relationship
Disadvantages: To be valid, experiments require random assignment of participants to conditions, well conceptualized independent and dependent variables, and other careful controls
Advantages and disadvantages of experimental research.
What four elements should be included in informed consent?
Informed consent is a document signed by participants affirming:
- They have been told the basic outlines of the study and are aware of what their participation will involve
- They are informed about any risks the experiment may hold
- Their participation is purely voluntary and
- They may terminate their participation at any time
Describe the entire process of how a neuron fires, starting with the sending neuron.
- The sending neuron releases neurotransmitters from the axon terminal buttons into the synapse between the sending and receiving neuron
- The neurotransmitters are received by the dendrites of the receiving neuron. The neurotransmitters open gates on the dendrites of the receiving neuron that allow either excitatory (+) or inhibitory (-) ions to enter the neuron
- Remaining neurotransmitters are reabsorbed by the sending neuron through a process called reuptake
- In its resting state, the receiving neuron has a relative charge of -70 millivolts inside the neuron compared to outside of the neuron
- If enough positive ions enter the neuron to change the charge from -70 millivolts to +40 millivolts, it triggers an action potential
- The action potential opens the membrane of the immediate area of the axon to allow positive Na+ ions to flow in, changing the charge in that spot from -70 millivolts to +40 millivolts
- The membrane that had been opened then closes and through sodium-potassium pumps (that pump out NA+ ions and pump in K+ ions), the area is returned to its -70 millivolt resting state
- The action potential then continues down the axon, with a small section of the cell membrane opening briefly to allow positive ions to flow in, which in turn triggers another action potential slightly further down the axon. In this manner, the neural impulse travels all the way down the axon to the terminal buttons
- The axon is covered by a myelin sheath, a protective coating that increases the speed of the neural impulse by allowing the impulse to travel directly through the axon, rather than through a series of action potentials
- There are breaks in the myelin sheath to ensure that the neural impulse is not attenuated. At the breaks, called nodes of Ranvier, the action potential occurs as described above
- At the end of the neuron, the action potential signals the axon terminal buttons to release their neurotransmitters, which are then received by the next neuron and the process begins again
What is meant by a neuron’s resting state?
The state in which there is a negative electrical charge of about -70 millivolts within a neuron
What is an action potential?
An electric nerve impulse that travels through a neuron’s axon when it is set off by a ‘trigger’, changing the neuron’s charge from negative to positive
What is the all or none law?
The rule that neurons are either on or off
What is the synapse?
The space between 2 neurons where the axon of a sending neuron communicates with the dendrites of a receiving neuron by using chemical messages
How do neurons communicate differences in stimulus strength?
The intensity of a stimulus determines how much of a neuron’s potential firing rate is reached. A strong stimulus such as a bright light or a loud sound, leads to a higher rate of firing than a less intense stimulus does. Therefore, although all impulses move at the same strength and speed through a particular axon- because of the all-or-none law- there is variation in the frequencies of impulses.
What is a neurotransmitter?
Chemicals that carry messages across the synapse to the dendrite (and sometimes the cell body) of a receiving neuron
What is neurotransmitter reuptake? Why is it important?
Neurotransmitter reuptake is the reabsorption of neurotransmitters by a terminal button. This is an efficient recycling system which allows the neuron to repackage the neurotransmitter and use it over and over again. It acts to put a brake on signals, limiting the amount of time neurotransmitters spend in the synapse. This can be important for regulation of certain reactions where the nervous system doesn’t want an extended reaction to a stimulus
What are the two main components of the central nervous system? Describe what each one does in a sentence.
Consists of the brain and the spinal cord.
The brain is an organ roughly half the size of a loaf of bread that constantly controls behaviour.
The spinal cord is a bundle of nerves that leaves the brain and runs down the lower back; it transmits messages between the brain and the body
What are afferent, efferent, and interneurons?
Sensory (afferent) neurons- Neurons that transmit information from the perimeter of the body to the central nervous system (CNR)
Motor (efferent) neurons- Neurons that communicate information from the nervous system to muscles and glands
Neurons that connect sensory and motor neurons, carrying messages between the two
What is the peripheral nervous system?
The part of the nervous system that includes the autonomic and somatic subdivisions; made up of neurons with long axons and dendrites, it branches out from the spinal cord and brain and reaches the extremities of the body
What are the two main divisions of the peripheral nervous system? Briefly describe the main difference(s) between the two divisions.
Somatic division- the part of the peripheral nervous system that specializes in the control of voluntary movements and the communication of information to and from the sense organs
Autonomic division- the part of the peripheral nervous system that controls involuntary movement of the heart, glands, lungs, and other organs
What is the sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions of the autonomic division of the nervous system?
Sympathetic- the part of the autonomic division of the nervous system that acts to prepare the body for action in stressful situations, engaging all of the organism’s resources to respond to a threat
Parasympathetic- the part of the autonomic division of the nervous system that acts to calm the body after an emergency has ended
What is meant by the “fight or flight” response?
The sympathetic division acts to prepare the body for action in stressful situations by engaging all of the organism’s resources to run away or to confront the threat. This response is often called the ‘fight or flight’ response
How does the sympathetic nervous system prepare the following organs for an emergency: eyes, lungs, heart, stomach, blood vessels of internal organs?
Dilates pupil (enhanced vision), relaxes bronchi (increased air to lungs), accelerates/strengthens heartbeat (increased oxygen), inhibits activity (blood to muscles), Contracts vessels (increases blood pressure)
What is the endocrine system
A chemical communication network that sends messages through the bloodstream to all parts of the body
Hypothalamus
responsible for regulating basic biological needs: hunger, thirst, temperature control
Pituitary gland
master gland that regulates other endocrine glands
Pons
Involved in sleep and arousal
Reticular formation
A network of neurons related to sleep, arousal, and attention
Spinal cord
Responsible for communication between the brain and the rest of the body; involved with simple reflexes
Cerebral Cortex
think, evaluate, and make complex judgements
Corpus Callosum
A bridge of fibres passing information between the two cerebral hemispheres
Thalamus
relay center for cortex; handles incoming and outgoing signals
Cerebellum
Controls bodily balance
Medulla
responsible for regulating largely unconscious functions such as breathing and circulation
What does the limbic system do?
Controls a variety of functions relating to emotions and self-preservation, like eating, aggression, and reproduction. Includes: Amygdala (Fear) and Hippocampus (learning and memory)
What do the amygdala and hippocampus do?
The amygdala is involved in fear and aggression. The hippocampus plays an important role in learning and memory
What are the main functions of the cerebral cortex?
Provides the ability to think, evaluate, and make complex judgments
What are the four lobes of the cerebral cortex? What is the main function of each lobe?
Frontal lobe: motor and Borca’s area
Parietal lobe: somatosensory and somatosensory association area
Occipital lobe: visual and visual association area
temporal lobe: Wernicke’s area, primary auditory area, and auditory association area
What does Broca’s area control? What does Wernicke’s area control?
Broca’s area is involved in several functions of the body including: Speech Production, Facial Neuron Control, Language Processing. Functions of Wernicke’s Area include: Language Comprehension, Semantic Processing, Language Recognition, Language Interpretation
In the parietal lobe, what is the relationship between the amount of brain tissue devoted to a somasensory area of the body and the sensitivity of that area? Based on the amount of brain tissue devoted, what is the most sensitive somasensory part of the body (hint: think about Homunculous).
The greater the amount of tissue in the somatosensory area of the brain that is related to a specific body part, the more sensitive that body part is. The hands are the most sensitive because we constantly use them all of the time.
What is neuroplasticity?
Neuroplasticity- the ability of the brain to adapt by adding neurons, making new connections between neurons, and reorganizing information processing areas.
What is neurogenesis?
New neurons created in certain areas of the brain during adulthood
What is brain lateralization?
The dominance of one hemisphere of the brain in specific functions, such as language
Basically, how do left brain dominant individuals differ in thought processing compared to right brain dominant individuals?
Left
- Verbal competence
- Processes information sequentially
- Language, logic, analysis
- Particular strengths in tasks that require verbal competence, analytic thinking, and processing of information sequentially one bit at a time
- Break down tasks into parts
- Learn step by step
- Use logic (weigh pros and cons) when making a decision
Right
- Spatial relationships
- Recognition of patterns and drawings
- Music
- Emotional expression
- Processes information globally
- Creativity, emotion, global thinking
- Particular strengths in nonverbal areas, recognition of patterns, music, emotional expression, and process information globally
- Try to see whole picture when learn a new task
- Go with gut feeling (intuition) when making decisions
What is Roger Sperry best known for (he won a Nobel Prize for his work)?
Dr. Roger Sperry (nobel prize) (exploring the 2 hemispheres). Developed a number of ingenious techniques for studying how each hemisphere operates. One experimental procedure: blindfolded patients with split brain asked to touch an object with their right hand and to name it. Then do the same with left hand.
Split-brain patients
- The corpus callosum is surgically cut
- The two hemispheres of the brain no longer communicate with each other
- The patient cannot combine the information of both hemispheres
What is the corpus callosum? What is its main purpose?
The corpus callosum is the fibrous portion of the brain that carries messages between the hemispheres
Describe the split brain experiments with humans.
In one experimental procedure, blindfolded patients touched an object with their right hand and were asked to name it. Because the right side of the body corresponds to the language oriented left side of the brain, split brain patients were able to name the object. However, if blindfolded patients touched to object with their left hand they were unable to name it aloud, even though the information had registered in their brains. When the blindfold was removed, patients could identify the object they had touched. Information can be learned and remembered, then, using only the right side of the brain.
Would a split brain person (corpus callosum separated) be able to name an object if it were only visible in the right visual field? Left visual field? Explain your answer.
Right visual field: Yes
Left visual field: no
Would the same individual in the above question able to recognize an object by touch if it were only visible in the right visual field? Left visual field? Explain your answer.
Right Visual field: No
Left Visual field: yes
What is a stressor?
Circumstances and events in life – outside forces that may result in a stress reaction in the individual
What is stress?
a person’s response to events that are threatening or challenging, the physiological/ emotional response to a stressor
What are the three major categories of stressors?
Cataclysmic events, Personal stressors, Daily hassles
Cataclysmic events
Strong stressors that occur suddenly, affecting many people at once (for example, natural disasters
Personal stressors
Major life events, such as the death of a family member that can have immediate negative consequences that generally fade with time
Daily hassles
everyday annoyances, such as being stuck in traffic, that cause minor irritations and may have long-term ill effects if they continue or are compounded by other stressful events
Describe the Holmes and Rahe Social Readjustment Scale.
stressors and assigned stress levels. Complete scale by indicating how many stressors you experienced in a certain time period (usually one year). The higher your score, the more likely you are to experience stress related illnesses (300 is the typical cut-off for high probability of experiencing a stress related illness)
What are psychophysiological (psychosomatic) disorders? Provide an example
Physical medical problems that are influenced by an interaction of psychological, emotional, and physical difficulties
Irritable Bowel Syndrome
Ulcers
Headaches, body pains from stress
Describe the three phases of our response to stressors according to the general adaptation syndrome model.
Three phases:
- Alarm and mobilization
- Resistance
- Stressor resolved and body returns to homeostasis OR
- Stressor repeats or is ongoing
- Exhaustion
According to Folkman and Lazarus (1984), what are the two main types of coping? Briefly describe each one.
Emotion-focused coping
- Managing emotions in the face of stress, seeking to change the way one feels about or perceives a problem
Problem-focused coping
- Attempting to modify the stressful problem or source of stress
What is learned helplessness?
Occurs when people conclude that unpleasant or aversive stimuli cannot be controlled
Experience more physical symptoms and depression
Describe the experiment with dogs that demonstrates learned helplessness. What did the third group of dogs “learn” that the other dogs did not learn.
Experiment with three groups of dogs
Phase I – dogs put in harnesses
Group 1 – Nothing happened
Group 2 – Shocked, but could stop shock by pushing a lever
Group 3 – Yoked to Group 2 but could not stop shock, shocked stop by Group 2 paired dog pushing lever, therefore, start and stop seemed random (unpredictable)
Phase II
All put into special compartment. Floor electrified, but dogs could easily escape by jumping over a barrier
Group 1 – quickly learned to jump over barrier
Group 2 – quickly learned to jump over barrier
Group 3 – did not learn to jump over barrier, rather just laid down and passively took shocks
Group 3 dogs said to have “learned helplessness”, that is, they learned that they could not control (escape) the shocks and therefore did not try
Describe the experiment that shows that control over a stressor allows us to better cope, even if the stressor is still present.
Humans also demonstrate learned helplessness: Two groups, each doing a task, but there was also an aversive, distracting noise
Group 1 – button they could use to stop sound
Group 2 – could not stop sound
Found Group 1 less stressed, even though they rarely stopped the sound –> Importance of control
Building on Beck’s idea of the causes of depression, according to Seligman, what is an important causal factor of depression?
Seligman built on Aaron Beck’s idea that depression was caused not by the stressor, but how we handled the stressor. Lack of (perceived) control of the environment (particularly stressors) was an important causal factor of depression and other mental disorders as well as physical symptoms.
Describe Type A, B, and D behaviour patterns. Which patterns are most likely to lead to heart attacks?
Type A Behaviour Pattern
- Cluster of behaviours involving hostility, competitiveness, time urgency, and feeling driven
Type B Behaviour Pattern
- Characterized by a patient, cooperative, noncompetitive, and nonaggressive manner
Type D Behaviour Pattern
- D is for “distressed”
- Characterized by insecurity, anxiety, and a negative outlook
- At risk for repeated heart attacks
Briefly describe the study that demonstrates that attitudes can impact survival from a major disease.
Emotional responses have a critical effect on its course
Those with a fighting spirit are more likely to recover
What are five ways drugs can influence neurotransmitters?
- blocks release of neurotransmitter
- enhances release of neurotransmitter
- blocks removal of neurotransmitter
- enhances by mimicking neurotransmitter
- blocks receptor for neurotransmitter
Name and describe the three key measures of polysomnography.
Polysomnography (Three key ways to measure sleep)
Electroencephalogram (EEG)
- Measures and records electrical activity of the brain
Electrooculogram
- Measures and records eye movements
Electromyogram
- Measures and records neck muscle tension
Describe REM sleep.
Sleep occupying 20% of an adult’s sleeping time, characterized by increased heart rate, blood pressure, and breathing rate; erections, eye movements; and the experience of dreaming
Describe the sleep cycle.
see image
What are circadian rhythms?
They are physiological fluctuations that take place on a daily basis. Our bodies are physiologically predisposed to a 24 hour (+/- a little) awake/sleep cycle (circadian rhythm). Obviously, though, our society is geared around a 24 hour day, so we essentially have a 24 hour circadian rhythm. The body changes in predictable ways during the circadian cycle and when our body gets out of the cycle, then we do not sleep or function as well (e.g., jet lag, shift workers)
What are “zeitgebers”?
environmental cues that keep us on a 24 hour cycle (alarms, sun-up/down times, environmental cues)
Unconscious Wish Fulfillment Theory (Sigmund Freud)
- Dreams are a manifestation of unfulfilled wishes (often sexual or aggressive)
- What is actually in dream (manifest content) represents unconscious wishes (latent content)
- Therapist can determine latent content through free association of manifest content and therefore help patients find the underlying causes of their problems
Freud’s Dream Theory is one of the cornerstones of psychoanalytic theory and his book is one of the most important works in Psychology
However, most psychologists and sleep/dream scientists do not believe Freud’s theory is correct
Nonetheless, Freud’s theory is very important for at least two reasons
Historical importance in developing the field of psychology
First theory that posited that dreams come from within the person – a paradigm shift in how we think about dreams
Activation-Synthesis
The brain produces random electrical energy during REM sleep possibly as a result of changes in the production of particular neurotransmitters. This change then stimulates random memories that are turned into a storyline.
Benefits for the Dreamer
Dreaming may help the dreamer emotionally (by working through emotions in dreams), generate creative solutions to problems, and/or help consolidate memories.
Dreams-for-Survival Theory
Permit one to reconsider and reprocess during sleep information that is critical for one’s daily survival.
What is sleep debt? How does sleep debt impact us?
Many people do not get enough sleep and develop a sleep debt, particularly true . . .
- On weekdays
- For teens
- For shiftworkers
Debate on the impacts of lack of sleep, but general findings are
- Some performance unaffected (engaging, stimulating tasks)
- Some performance impairment (dull, monotonous tasks)
- More negative mood
- The greater the sleep debt, the more impairment that is experienced
- Brain functioning changes – fMRI shows change in distribution of brain activity for specific activities and other parts of the brain brought in to compensate
Note – the frontal cortex (responsible for higher order actions and decision making) is one part of the brain negatively impacted by lack of sleep and cannot be compensated for
- Probably most people think of the impacts of lack of sleep like a battery running down, but that is not really the best analogy
- A better way to think about it is a car engine that is overworked – loses peak horsepower, spark plugs may misfire, engine may sometimes sputter, and functioning can be compensated for a while, but then the engine ceases working if the overwork continues
Describe the following problems and their impacts associated with disruption in circadian rhythms: jet lag, daylight savings time, shiftwork.
Jet lag
- Problems that occur as a result of travelling across time zones
- Worse when travelling west to east
- E.g., Professional baseball teams tend to lose more games when travelling west to east than east to west
Daylight Savings
- One hour time shift
- Increase in car accidents and other hospital admissions involving accidents in spring when lose an hour sleep
- Reverse true in fall when gain an hour sleep
Shift Work
- Any job involving work outside the hours of 6:00 am and 7:00 pm
- People get sleepier as week goes on
- Leads to more errors in work and judgment
- Shift workers have more physical, social, and emotional difficulties
- Despite attempts by companies and researchers to reduce the impact of shift work, nothing has been found that is effective
Corpus collosum
