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AP0408 > Neuroscience > Flashcards

Neuroscience Flashcards

1
Q

Outline how the nervous system is organised

A

Divided into 2 divisions: CNS and PNS
CNS= spinal cord and brain for local control
PNS allows for communication with bodily structures
Bot systems operate collectively to provide bodily control

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2
Q

List some of the important primary cortical areas

A

Motor
Somatic sensory
Gustary
Olfactory
Auditory
Visual

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3
Q

Describe the structure f the spinal cord

A

Split into white and grey matter, grey matter being the inner layer of the spiral cord
White matter has lots of fat
Both ventral and dorsal roots attached to the spinal cord that lead t spinal nerves
Dorsal attatched to the top
Ventral attached to the bottom
Dorsal root ganglia on dorsal roots that are a cluster o cell bodies

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4
Q

List the 4 segments of the spinal cord

A

Cervical
Thoracic
Lumbar
Sacral

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5
Q

What is a dermatome and how is it useful?

A

Region of body that a spinal nerve innervates mapped out on the surface of the skin
They’re useful clinically for identifying potential neural injury

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6
Q

Describe the basic layout of the autonomic nervous system

A

Part of the motor section of peripheral nervous system
Split into sympathetic (fight or flight) and parasympathetic (rest and digest)
Only includes motor axons

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7
Q

Describe the general arrangement of the ANS

A

Most common arrangement within system is a 2 neuron chain
1st= Preganglionic fibre
2nd= Postganglionic fibre
Sympathetic component can also directly innervate some structures with the help of adrenaline

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8
Q

Where along the spinal cord are the sympathetic and parasympathetic systems arranged?

A

Sympathetic- Thoracolumbar
Parasympathetic- Cervicosacral

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9
Q

List 5 of the effects of the sympathetic system

A

Dilated pupils
Stimulated salivation
Accelerated heartbeat
Secretion of adrenaline & noradrenaline
Relaxed bladder

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10
Q

List 5 effects of the parasympathetic system

A

Contracts pupil
Stimulated salivation
Slowed heat beat
Stimulated activity of stomach and pancreas
Contracted bladder

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11
Q

What is the main function of the nervous system?

A

Transmit information reliably and quickly over long distances

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12
Q

Describe diffusion and electrical charge in terms of membranes

A

Non-permeable membranes- No diffusion of ions so each side is electrically neutral
Semi- permeable membranes- Electrons can flow down their concentration gradient through ion channels

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13
Q

Define equilibrium potential

A

When the electrical force of attraction of -ve and +very charge for an ion will exactly counterbalance the driving force down the concentration gradient for a specific ion
The state of equilibrium is ruched

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14
Q

What is the “all or none law”?

A

When, following a single stimulus the membrane potential rises to or above threshold then the action potential will always occur

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15
Q

What is the effect if voltage of Na+ and K+ channels?

A

K+ = open when threshold is reached
Na+= open when inside of cell becomes more +ve

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16
Q

Describe the two phases of memebrane refractory period following an action potential

A
  1. Absolute refractory period- most voltage gated Na+ channels are being used, so there is no new action potential generated
  2. Relative refractory period- Some Na+ channels are at a resting state and a new action potential could be generated by a stronger stimulus
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17
Q

Describe the structure of a mylinated axon

A

An axon will have Schwann cells, which insulate a portion off the axon
Nodes of ranvier= exposed parts of the axon

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18
Q

What is the effect of myelination?

A

Allows for the current to spread from one node to the next where there are concentrations of voltage gated Na+ channels with less leakage
Results in faster conduction of an actin potential

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19
Q

Where are action potentials generated in neurons?

A

In most its generated in Axon Hillock, close to the cell body
Apart from in sensory neurones where its generated at the site of stimulus

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20
Q

What is a synapse?

A

Space where communication occurs between neurons

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21
Q

Give the 2 types of synapses

A

Electrical- found in escape reflex neurons (invertebrates)
Chemical- found in almost all mammalian neurones

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22
Q

List the 3 different synaptic arrangements in the CNS

A

Axodendritic
Axosomatic
Axoaxonic- modulates behaviour of other synapses

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23
Q

What is the sequence of events involved in synaptic transmission?

A
  1. Action potential propagated in presynaptic neurone
  2. Ca2+ enters synaptic knob
  3. Ca2+ causes release of neurotransmitter by exocytosis
  4. Neurotransmitter binds to postsynaptic receptor
  5. Specific ion channels in sub synaptic membrane open
  6. Postsynaptic potentials are generated
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24
Q

Define and explain EPSP

A

Excitatory postsynaptic potential
+ve change in 2nd neurone
Pushes cell close to threshold

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25
Q

Define and explain IPSP

A

Inhibitory postsynaptic potential
Cell becomes more negatively charged
Dec chance of action potential being created

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26
Q

Explain fast and slow postsynaptic potentials

A

Fast- Ionotropic, mediated directly via transmitter binding to the receptor site coupled to an ion channel
Slow- Metabotropic, mediated indirectly via G-protein interaction before activation of an ion channel

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27
Q

Describe the 2 types of summation

A

Temporal- Individual neurone pumps out higher excitation/ inhibition
Spatial- Lots of input to increase excitatory/inhibitory all together

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28
Q

What is the function of post synaptic potentials?

A

Allow for communication between one neuron cell and another

29
Q

What is the order of the reflex arc?

A
  1. Sensory receptor
  2. Afferent neuron
  3. Synapse to efferent neuron
  4. Efferent neuron to muscle
30
Q

Describe the myotactic (stretch) reflex

A

Most common example= knee-jerk reflex
Tap below patellar cause quads to stretch, which causes muscle spindle afferent to discharge
Synchronised EPSPs results in generation of action potentials from lots of alpha motoneurons
Pas conduct own to NMJs, which results in muscle contraction/ extension of the knee joint

31
Q

Describe the invers myotactic reflex

A

Reffered to as autogenic inhibition
Mediated by inhibitory neurones in special tension receptors in the Golgi tendon organs
Contraction is turned off iff too much force being generated

32
Q

Describe the flexion (withdrawal) reflex

A

Poly synaptic reflex with several interneurons involved
Gets affected area away from noxious stimulus
Can be suppressed voluntarily

33
Q

How are crossed extension reflexes related to withdrawal reflexes?

A

The poly synaptic reflexes work together
Flexion relies takes one away from noxious stimulus whilst crossed extensor results in the stabilisation of posture
Occurs in lower limbs only

34
Q

Describe the common plan of sensory systems

A

The stimulus has to activate the receptor
Receptor need to pass the stiumulus to the CNS
Pathway treads to perception. Which is the conscious interpretation of the stimuli
The loop is open so doesn’t lead back to stimuli

35
Q

What are the components of a sensory transduction?

A

Stimulus
Receptor potentials
Action potentials
Neurotransmitter release

36
Q

What are the4 things the boy needs to know about a stimulus?

A
  1. Modality- Type of sensory stimulus
  2. Intensity- Amplitude
  3. Duration- How long dos the stimulus last
  4. Location- Where in space, environment, in/on our body the stimulus can be found
37
Q

List the 6 sensory modalities

A
  1. Somatosensory
  2. Olfactory
  3. Auditory
  4. Visual
  5. Gustatory
  6. Vestibular
38
Q

Give the 2 types of receptors when encoding the onset and duration of a stimulus

A

Slowly adapting receptor- found in slower conducting neurones
Rapidly adapting receptors- founding faster conducting neurones, the receptor potential only responds to the initial phase

39
Q

How does location affect the encoding of a stimulus?

A

If a tumulus occurs outside/ far away from a receptive field, there will be no response
Receptive field size can vary on different parts of the body

40
Q

Describe the effect lateral inhibition

A

Improves precision by refining higher order neuron activity
Gets around the problem of overlapping receptive fields
Improves discrimination

41
Q

List the somatosensory receptors and their importance

A

Skin (exteroreceptors)- detect touch, pressure, temp etc, typically external
Visceral (interoreceptors)- detect organ stretch, temp and chemical changes
Muscle and joint receptors (propioreceptors)- provide kinaesthetic info, can be ex and internal
Sensory- modality, morphology, degree of adaptation and fibre type based on axon diameter & conduction velocity.

42
Q

What difference dos hair make in cutaneous sensory receptors?

A

The free nerve endings around hair root can be ether rapid or slowly adapting- depends on the hair type because the hairs have sensory axons around them

43
Q

Describe the behaviour of rapidly adapting cutaneous mechanorecptors

A

Involves the Pacinian corpuscle which is very good at detecting vibration
Hair follies only detect things which the har is physically moved
Also incudes Meissners corpuscle which are good at detecting the start of indentation

44
Q

Describe the behaviours of the slow adapting cutaneous mechorecpetors

A

Include Merkel disks that detect how long an indentation as occured
Ruffini corpuscles detect movement over he skin and the reduction of skin movement to overall movement

45
Q

Describe the sensory fibres associated with first pain

A

A-Delta nociceptors are myelinated, mechanical an thermosenstive
Aprox diameter of 1-6 micrometers
Conduct at 4-36 m/sec
Pain is sharp, rapid and easily localised

46
Q

Describe the sensory fibres associated with second pain

A

Unmyelinated C fibre nociceptors
Lost of stimuli can activate them
Wide dynamic range of 0.2-1 micrometer
Conduct at0.42 m/sec
Abuse dull aching, and poorly localised pain

47
Q

Describe the structure of muscle spindles

A

Parallel arrangement of muscle fibres
Have types of sensory ending:
Primary ending- Group Ia, afferent RA
Secondary ending- Group II, afferent SA

48
Q

Describe the structure of Golgi tendon organs

A

Series arrangement of muscle fibres
Ending writhing the tendon- group Ib afferent

49
Q

Describe the role of muscles spindles and GTOs

A

Spindles- muscles stretch detectors, due to parallel arrangement
GTOs- detect force not length, give an output that is proportional to the force of muscle shortening

50
Q

Outline the anatomy of the ear

A

Outer ear- consists of auditory canal and pinna
Middle ear- consists of ossicles and tympanic membrane
Inner ear- consists of oval window and cochlea

51
Q

What is the main function of the middle ear?

A

Amplify sound from gaseous medium to a fluid medium

52
Q

Describe what happens in ht dinner ear in order for us to be able to hear sound

A

Movement of perilymph fluid leads to movement of the basilar memebrane
The amplitude and frequency of the movement is retained along the whole length of the membrane
The oval window oscillates at higher frequencies and when pushed, moves the fluid forwards
The round window releases pressure when fluid is pushed against it

53
Q

Outline the movement of hair cells in the inner ear

A

Upward deflection of the basilar memebrane causes the cilia of the hair cells to bend in the direction of the largest cilia

54
Q

List the steps that cause an action potential in the hair cells of the inner ear

A
  1. Depolarisation (electrical)
  2. Ca2+ influx through voltage gated channels
  3. Transmitter is released
  4. Cells become depolarised and an action potential in the post synaptic cell
55
Q

Why do we need hair cell in the outer ear?

A

To amplify sound

56
Q

List the components of the vestibular system and their role in balance

A

Semicircular canal- detects nodding, shaking and sideways movement of the head
Posterior canal- senses tilt of head towards shoulders
Superior canal- rotation of head from front to back
Horizontal canal- senses rotation of head as it turns left to right

57
Q

Describe how gustation (taste) occurs

A

Taste receptors mainly located on the tongue it are found on epiglottis, palate and pharynx
Olfactory cues from palate, pharynx and nasal cavity contribute to taste sensation
Texture and temp also contribute to taste

58
Q

How is the tongue organised?

A

No specific region for each of the 5 tastes:
Bitter
Salty
Sweet
Umami (delicious glutamate, in fast food)
Sour

59
Q

Describe how olfaction (smell) occurs

A

Takes place in nasal cavity
Only sensory system that feeds directly to the brain
Provides cues about pleasure and contributes to taste
Thousands of dues can be recognised
Smells are oil based

60
Q

How is light focused on the retina?

A

The cornea does this by refracting
Lense assists cornea in doing this
When looking at something far way, the lense elongates, when close it contracts

61
Q

How is the retina organised?

A

It’s a multilayered structure with ganglion cells at the very front and photoreceptors at the very back of the retina

62
Q

Explain the two different types of receptors and how they work

A

Rods- 125 mill, extremely sensitive to light, single photon response, they have a low spatial resolution and they operate on intensity not colour
Cones- 7 mill, relatively sensitive to light, 100 photons for a response, they have a high spatial resolution and work in colour

63
Q

How are rods and cones distributed in the retina?

A

There are more cones near the fovea
There are more rods in the periphery
There is a blind spot where there are no rods or cones, this is where the optic nerve exits the eye

64
Q

Outline phototransduction in the dark

A

Rhodopsin is inactive, cyclic GMP is activated and Na+ channels are open
This depolarises the membrane releasing the neurotransmitter

65
Q

Outline phototransduction in light

A

Rhodoppsin is activated
This leads to conversion of cGMP into GMP
Na+ channel is closed which hyper polarises the membrane meaning no neurotransmitter is released

66
Q

Give the 2 sensory pathways to the cerebral cortex

A

Typical- Receptor, Thalamus, Cortex
Olfactory- Recpetor, Cortex, Thalamus, Cortex

67
Q

Describe outflow from the motor cortex

A

Primary motor cortex has a clear bodily organisation- somatotopy
The corticobulbar outflo controls Thrace and upper neck
Corsticospinal outflow controls musculature to all all bodily part below lower neck level

68
Q

What is the function of the Corticospinal tract?

A

Initiate and control of voluntary motor activity
Allows greater control of arms and hands than the legs
Damage to the tract leads to significant function loss

AP0408 (8 decks)

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