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NSCI 6112: Neuroscience > Neuromodulators > Flashcards

Neuromodulators Flashcards

1
Q

Neuromodulators are a set of specific _______ synthesized and released by a specific set of neural _____

A

neurotransmitters; pathways

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2
Q

Common neuromodulator transmitters include

A 
Dopamine
Norepinephrine
Epinephrine
Serotonin
Histamine
Acetylcholine
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3
Q

Neuromodulator pathways: each neuromodulator transmitter is synthesized by several small clusters of _____. Most of these clusters are located in the _____. Axons of these neurons project diffusely throughout the brain and ______.

A

Neurons
brainstem
spinal cord

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4
Q

What is a neuromodulator pathway?

A

nuclei (groups of neurons) that synthesize neuromodulators

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5
Q

Where are the neurons that synthesize dopamine located? (2)

A
  1. Substantia Nigra

2. Ventral tegmental area (VTA)

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6
Q

Where are the neurons that synthesize norepinephrine located? (1)

A

the Locus ceruleus

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7
Q

Where are the neurons that synthesize serotonin found? (1)

A

the Raphe nuclei

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8
Q

A scary experience that triggers norepinephrine would activate which neuromodulator pathways?

A

locus ceruleus

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9
Q

Serotonin is related to sleeping, eating, digesting and overall feelings of well-being and happiness. What neuromodulator pathway is serotonin synthesis found in?

A

the Raphe nuclei

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10
Q

Dopamine plays a major role in precision of movements (motor function) as well as pleasure, euphoria, compulsion, preservation, reward and addiction. What neuromodulator pathways are dopamine synthesis found in?

A
  1. Substantia Nigra

2. VTA (ventral tegmental area)

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11
Q

Acetylcholine has a major function in the parasympathetic nervous system, such as contracting smooth muscle, dilating blood vessels and slowing the heart rate. What neuromodulator pathway is acetylcholine synthesis found in?

A

Basal forebrain

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12
Q

Where are the neurons that synthesize acetylcholine found? (1)

A

Basal forebrain

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13
Q

Neurons that synthesize acetylcholine act at the muscarinic ____tropic receptors

A

metabotropic

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14
Q

Neuromodulators operate almost exclusively through which type of receptors?

A

G-protein coupled metabotropic receptors

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15
Q

Neuromodulators alter the electrical excitability of many other neural pathways and systems involved in ____, _____ and _____ functions.

A

sensory
motor
cognitive

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16
Q

Neuromodulator neurons have ____-like properties and fire regular trains of AP due to __trinsic membrane properties

A

pacemaker

intrinsic

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17
Q

Regular, intrinsic firing patterns of neurons located in the locus coeruleus synthesize which neurotransmitter?

A

norepinephrine

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18
Q

The firing rate of neuromodulator neurons is further modulated by _____ state

A

behavioral

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19
Q

Additional changes in firing rate of neuromodulator neurons may be either ___ (steady) or ___ (brief, time-locked to behavioral events)

A

tonic

phasic

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20
Q

Behavioral states associated w/ change in the level of activity in neuromodulator systems include _____ (reward), _____ (arousal) and __/__ (consciousness)

A

motivation
attention
sleep/wake

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21
Q

There is a ____ firing rate of noradrenergic neurons in the locus ceruleus associated with waking, conscious state

A

higher

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22
Q

_____ axons have very specific projections, contacting very few postsynaptic neurons

A

glutamatergic

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23
Q

____ axons have diffuse projections, contacting MANY postsynaptic neurons

A

neuromodulator

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24
Q

___ numbers of neurons synthesize and release neuromodulators, yet, have a ___ influence on behavior

A

few; large

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25
Q

Varicosities of neuromodulator axons are described as

A

beads on a string

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26
Q

There is a global, ____ release of neuromodulators as the action potential travels down the axon and releases neuromodulators from each ____

A

diffuse; varicosity

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27
Q

___ neuromodulator receptors influence cortical pyramidal neurons.

A

multiple

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28
Q

Different receptors act through different ___ proteins

A

G

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29
Q

There are both ____ and ____ effects on ion channels. The net effect on the neuron depends on which neuromodulator receptors are expressed and the patter of activity in the ______

A

convergent; divergent

neuromodulator pathways

30
Q

The dopamine system is implicated in which 3 main clinical applications?

A
  1. Parkinson’s
  2. Addiction
  3. Schizophrenia
31
Q

Serotonin and norepinephrine (noradrenaline) systems are implicated in which main clinical application?

A

depression

32
Q

Loss of the ascending neuromodulator function can contribute to what major issue?

A

coma

33
Q

Histamine is synthesized in the ______ nucleus of the _____

A

tuberomammillary; hypothalamus

34
Q

If you began to experience anaphylactic shock from a bee sting, your body would release a ton of histamine to combat the invading toxin. Where would the neuromodulator pathway of histamine be activated?

A

the tuberomammillary nucleus of the hypothalamus

35
Q

_____ pathways are dysregulated in schizophrenia and addiction, and originate from the _____

A

dopamine; VTA

36
Q

____ neurons die in Parkinson’s disease, and originate from the ____

A

dopamine; substantia nigra

37
Q

Axons of which brain system target widespread regions in the brain and spinal cord?

A

locus coeruleus

38
Q

The main catecholamines in the brain are ____ and ____

A

dopamine; norepinephrine

39
Q

Tyrosine hydroxylase converts tyrosine into ______, which crosses the ____ and is a treatment for Parkinson’s.

A

L-DOPA; BBB

40
Q

Dopa decarboxylase converts _____ into ____ which does NOT cross the BBB.

A

L-DOPA; dopamine

41
Q

Dopamine b-hydroxylase converts ____ into _____ via one additional step

A

dopamine; norepinephrine

42
Q

The primary mechanism of DA/NE is _____

A

uptake

43
Q

The secondary mechanism of DA/NE is ____

A

enzymatic degradation

44
Q

D1 ____ cAMP whereas D2 ____ cAMP

A

stimulates; inhibits

45
Q

For DE receptors, cAMP binds to regulatory subunits on which protein?

A

Protein Kinase A (PKA)

46
Q

For NE receptors, b receptors ___ production of cAMP wherease a2 receptors ____ production of cAMP

A

increase; decrease

47
Q

Dopamine neurons are ____ when a monkey gets an unexpected reward OR sees a stimulus it has learned to predict rewards for

A

excited

48
Q

Dopamine neurons are ____ when a monkey expects a reward but doesn’t get it

A

inhibited

49
Q

Reward (prediction error) signal is involved in behavioral reinforcement, ____ and _____

A

learning

addiction

50
Q

Norepinephrine neurons have a ___ baseline firing rate when the monkey is drowsy

A

low

51
Q

NE neurons have a ___ baseline rate with phasic responses to stimuli when paying attention and ___ in a task

A

low; engaged

52
Q

NE neurons have ___ baseline activity without phasic responses when there are alter and ____ tasks

A

high; switching

53
Q

Neural activity of NE reflects _____ and _____

A

attention; arousal

54
Q

All addictive drugs ____ the DA levels in part of the reward system called the nucleus _____

A

increase; accumbens

55
Q

Psychostimulants such as _____ and ______ cause an overall ____ in DA levels

A

cocaine; amphetamines; increase

56
Q

Cocaine ____ dopamine transporter (DAT) on the __synaptic DA terminals responsible for synaptic uptake of DA.

A

blocks; pre

57
Q

Amphetamine ____ DA from the synaptic vesicles which ___ through DAT back into the synapse.

A

releases; leaks

58
Q

Opiates inhibit ______ interneurons in the ____, which suppresses activity of the ____ neurons and increases the firing rate of VTA DA neurons

A

GABAergic; VTA; GABAergic

59
Q

_____ influence PREsynaptic terminals to increase DA synaptic concentrations in the nucleus _____

A

psychostimulants; accumbens

60
Q

_____ increase the firing rate of DA neurons in the VTA, ___ing synaptic DA concentrations in the nucleus accumbens

A

Opiates; increasing

61
Q

Dopamine release is _____ in schizophrenia (SZ) patients

A

elevated

62
Q

Drugs that elevate ___ levels, such as amphetamines, can cause psychosis. This is why in SZ, even drug-naive patients experience hallucinations.

A

dopamine

63
Q

Genetic linkage studies implicate mutations in genes related to DA neurotransmission in _______

A

schizophrenia

64
Q

The clinical efficacy of antipsychotic medications is tightly correlated w/ their ability to bind to which receptors?

A

D2

65
Q

Serotonin (5-HT) is synthesized by cell bodies in the _____, and different cortical regions express different 5-HT receptor _____

A

Raphe nuclei; subtypes

66
Q

In Depression, there is altered brain activity in the ____ and ____ areas of the brain

A

limbic; prefrontal

67
Q

In Depression, there can be changes in the brain’s ____

A

volume

68
Q

Antidepressants ___ synaptic concentrations of monoamines ____ and ____

A

increase; serotonin; norepinephrine

69
Q

SSRIs are selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors, meaning they ____ uptake

A

block

70
Q

MAOIs are monoamine oxidase inhibitors, meaning they ____ degradation

A

block

71
Q

Drugs that INCREASE synaptic concentrations of 5-HT will subsequently

A

elevate mood

NSCI 6112: Neuroscience (10 decks)

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