Neurology Short Case Flashcards
Investigations for floppy strong
TFTs
Urine metabolic screen
Serum lactate
CT Brain
Karyotype and microarray
Inherited causes of floppy strong
Central cause - UMN lesion
Genetic e.g. PWS, T21
Structural e.g. lissencephaly
Neurodegenerative e.g. Tay-Sachs, MPS, Zellweger
Neurocutaneous e.g. Sturge Weber
Metabolic e.g. amino acidopathies
Acquired causes of floppy strong
Central cause - UMN lesion
Static encephalopathy, prematurity
Infection e.g. TORCH, meningitis, encephalitis
Ischaemia
Trauma
Endocrine e.g. hypothyroidism, hypopituitarism
Causes of floppy weak
Peripheral cause - LMN lesion
Anterior horn: SMA
Peripheral nerve: GBS, hereditary motor/sensory neuropathy
NMJ: myasthenia, infantile botulism
Muscle: congenital or infantile muscular dystrophy, congenital myopathies (e.g. central, core, nemaline rod)
Complications of hypotonia
Ophthalmoplegia
Aspiration
Head lag
Scoliosis
Weak cry, cough, chest infections
Constipation
Hip dislocation
Investigations for floppy weak
CK
EMG and nerve conduction studies
Muscle biopsy
Exome sequence on microarray
Central/UMN clinical signs
Decreased alertness, not age appropriate
Hypertonia +/- clonus
Normal or decreased power
Hyperreflexic + Babinski
Normal or decreased sensation
Decreased coordination
Features of spasticity; some spontaneous/antigravity movements
Peripheral/LMN clinical signs
Normal alertness
Hypotonia
Decreased power
Hyporeflexic
Decreased sensation
Normal or decreased coordination
UMN lesion differentials according to location
Spine: unlikely unilateral, no facial changes, sensory changes at level
Brainstem: arm/leg weakness, facial weakness on opposite side
Subcortical: arm/leg weakness, facial weakness on same side
Cortical: arm/leg weakness, facial weakness on same side, cortical signs (visual fields, aphasia)
LMN lesion/neuromuscular DDx according to location
Anterior horn cell: SMA, polio
Peripheral nerve: GBS, CMT
Neuromuscular junction: myasthenia gravis, botulism
Muscular dystrophy: congenital myopathies (central/core/nemaline), dystrophies (DMD/BMD/FSHD), congenital muscular or myotonic dystrophy
Anterior horn cell signs
Normal extraocular/face strength
**Tongue fasciculations +++
Proximal > distal and LL > UL power
Hyporeflexic or absent reflexes
Types of SMA
SMA 1 - never sit
SMA 2 - sit but not stand, mini myoclonus
SMA 3 - stand and walk
Peripheral nerve signs
Normal extraocular/face strength
**Distal weakness (++)
Hyporeflexic or absent reflexes
Wasting
High stepping gait
Distal sensory loss
Tremor in CMT
Neuromuscular junction signs
**Ptosis and ophthalmoplegia
Decreased extraocular and face strength
Proximal or distal weakness
Hyporeflexic
Fatiguability
Myopathy signs
Normal extraocular strength
Decreased face strength
Proximal weakness
Hyporeflexic
Fish tented mouth
Ophthamoplegia
Facial/bulbar involvement
Normal CK
Myotonia
Muscular dystrophy signs
Normal extraocular strength
Decreased face strength
Proximal weakness
Hyporeflexic
Increased CK
Congenital myotonic dystrophy signs
Normal extraocular strength
Decreased face strength
Proximal or distal weakness
Absent reflexes
Tented upper lip open mouth, high arched palate
Causes of chorea (irregular rapid movements)
Pathology in corpus striatum
Inherited: CP, Wilson’s, neurodegenerative (Lecsh Nyhan, Huntington’s), ataxia telangiectsia
Acquired
Infective: Sydenham’s, EBV
Immune: SLE
Drugs
Causes of athetosis (slow writhing movements of proximal extremities)
Pathology in putamen (same causes as chorea)
Inherited: CP, Wilson’s, neurodegenerative (Lecsh Nyhan, Huntington’s), ataxia telangiectasia
Acquired
Infective: Sydenham’s, EBV
Immune: SLE
Drugs
Causes of dystonia (abnormal posturing)
Inherited: CP, Wilson’s, dopa responsive, Hallevorden-Spatz, Huntington’s
Acquired: drugs
Causes of static tremor (present with rest and gone with action)
Wilson’s
Hallervorden-Spatz
Huntington’s
Causes of postural tremor (throughout range of movement)
Thyrotoxicosis
Phaeochromocytoma
Wilson’s
Familial
Cushing’s syndrome
Hypoglycaemia
Causes of intention tremor (end of movement only)
Cerebellar lesions (multiple sclerosis, stroke,
mass lesion), drugs, chronic alcoholism, Wilson’s
Causes of myoclonus (sudden, disorganised, irregular contraction of muscle/muscle group)
Primary seizure disorder
Structural brain abnormalities e.g. Aicardi
Degenerative e.g. neurocutaneous, Tay Sachs, WIlson’s
Ishcaemic
Infections e.g. HIV encephalopathy, SSPE
Metabolic e.g. amino acidopathies
Key cerebellar signs
Ipsilateral to side of lesion (cross twice in brainstem)
Dysdiadochokinesis
Past pointing/dysmetria; dyssynergia
Ataxic gait - wide-based, veer towards affected side, difficulties heel-toe walking
Nystagmus
Dysarthria (scanning), explosive speech
Hypotonia, pendular reflexes
Head titubation, truncal ataxia
Romberg’s +ve
Causes of ataxia (broad categories)
Cerebellar
Vestibular (acute labyrinthitis)
Dorsal-column loss
Peripheral neuropathy
Investigations for cerebellar pathology
Urine dipstick: glycosuria in AT and FA (Friedreich’s Ataxia)
Imaging: CT/MRI - if no lesion, then genetic/metabolic evaluation
Bloods: FBE, UEC, toxicology screen (blood/urine), metabolic screen (amino acids, lactate, pyruviate, ammonia, pH, ketones)
Other: LP, urine catecholamines for neuroblastoma (VMA/HVA) with chest/abdo imaging
Clinical features of Friedreich’s Ataxia
Ataxia, pes cavus, hammer toes, kyphoscoliosis, sensorineural hearing loss, HOCM
Clinical features of ataxia telangiectasia
Telangiectasia of bulbar, pinnae, nares, flexures
Impaired cognition
Ear/lung infection
Clubbing
Leukaemia/lymphoma
Gonadal atrophy
Causes of cerebellar ataxia
Chemical: EtOH, phenytoin, CBZ, lead
Hypoxic/vascular: CP, cerebellar CVA/bleed/AVM
Infection: abscess, meningitis, encephalitis
Neoplastic: cerebellar, posterior fossa (medulloblastoma, astrocytoma), neuroblastoma
Physical: trauma, structural (Dandy-Walker, Chiari malformation, agenesis of cerebellar vermis), raised ICP
Inflammatory: acute cerebellitis, Miller-Fisher variant of GBS (ataxia, ophthalmoplegia, areflexia)
Genetic: AT, FA, Angelman’s, Bardet-Biedl
Endocrine/metabolic: leukodystrophies, Wilson’s, lysosomal storage, peroxisomal
Nutritional: vitamin E deficiency
Causes of ataxia from posterior column loss
Subacute combined degeneration of the cord - B12 deficiency (also get peripheral neuropathy, absent ankle reflexes, doral column loss, atrophy, dementia)
Diabetes
Hypothyroidism
Tabes dorsalis (untreated syphilis)
Causes of peripheral neuropathy
DAM IT BICH
Drugs: isoniazid, vincristine, phenytoin, nitrofurantoin, cisplatin, heavy metals, amiodarone
Alcohol
Metabolic: diabetes, CRF, neurodegenerative
Infective: GBS
Tumour: lymphoma, leukaemia
B12 deficiency
Idiopathic
Connective tissue disease: SLE, PAN
Hereditary: HSMN
Causes of hemiplegia
SCIT
Systemic: coagulopathies (Factor V Leiden, SLE, ALL), sickle cell, NF-1
Cardiac: hypertension, cyanotic congenital heart (< 2 years - usually cerebral thrombosis, 2 years cerebral abscess), SBE, vessel abnormalities (cerebral AVMs, Sturge Webeter)
Infective: HSV encephalitis, bacterial meningitis, cerebral abscess
Traumatic: MVA, NAI
Signs of spinal cord involvement in hemiplegia e.g. Brown Sequard, hemicord syndrome
Ipsilateral arm involvement if cord level high enough
Sensory changes:
Ipsilateral light touch and proprioception
Contralateral pain and temperature
Signs of brainstem involvement in hemiplegia
Ipsilateral arm involvement
Contralateral face involvement
May have cerebellar signs
Brainstem signs depending on level: midbrain (CN III/IV), pons (V, VI, VII, VIII), medulla (IX, X, XI, XII)
Signs of internal capsule involvement in hemiplegia
Ipsilateral arm involvement
Ipsilateral face involvement
Absence of cortical signs
Signs of cortex involvement in hemiplegia
Ipsilateral arm involvement
Ipsilateral face involvement
Cortical signs: hemianopia, visual field changes, dysphasia
Causes of seizures
Idiopathic
Inherited (PWS, T21, TS, NF-1, Sturge Weber)
Acquired: structural/space occupying, infective (post meningitis/encephalitis), immune (SLE, vasculitis), metabolic, endocrine (low sugar/electrolytes)
Complications of seizures and medications
Seizures: developmental delay, aspiration
Medications: drowsiness, weight gain, gum hypertrophy, rash, cytopaenias, nausea and vomiting
General causes of macrocephaly
Large bones - bony disorders
Large brain - megalencephaly
Large ventricles/fluid - hydrocephalus
Bony disorders causing macrocephaly
Achondroplasia
Rickets
Osteogenesis imperfecta
Chronic haemolytic anaemias