neuroendocrine system

Question 1

general adaption syndrome

Answer 1

1. Alarm phase (adrenal medulla)
2. Resistance phase (adrenal cortex)
3. Recovery phase

Question 2

Alarm phase

Answer 2

• activation of the amygdala (fight or flight response)
• activation adrenal medulla (SNS)
  activation of adrenaline
  activation of adrenergic receptors
  increase bp, blood glucose and respiratory
  circulation to brain, lungs and skeletal muscles
  = escape from dangerous stimulus

Question 3

The adrenal gland consists of

Answer 3

capsule 
zona glumerulosa 
zona fasciculata 
zona reticularis 
adrenal medulla

Question 4

adrenal gland hormones

Answer 4

• aldosterone
• cortisol
• epinephrine

Question 5

Adrenal medulla

Answer 5

• produces catecholamine - makes ephrinephanine
• water-soluble - rapid secretion
• secreted into the large vein which drains into vena cava
• acts via adrenic reception ( a and B)

Question 6

a1 adrenergic receptors

Answer 6

located in

• blood vessels
• radial muscle of the iris
• sphincters
• smooth muscle of GIT
• hepatocytes

_ increases in Bp

• pupil dilation
• decreased GIT mobility
• increases BGL gluconeogenesis (formation), glycogenolysis) .

Question 7

A2 adrenergic receptors

Answer 7

located in

• peripheral sympathetic nervous system
• platelets
• adipose tissue
• central nervous system
• decrease of insulin + glucogon secretion
• decrease lipolysis
• Platelet aggregation
• decrease of neurotransmitter release

Question 8

B1 adrenergic receptors

Answer 8

located in

• myocardium
• adipocytes
• smooth muscles of GIT

Positive inotropic, chronotropic, dromotropic effects on the heart (force levels)
Increases lipolysis
Increase BP

Question 9

B2 adrenergic receptors

Answer 9

located in

• smooth muscle of bronchioles
• skeletal muscles
• mast cells
• uterus
• hepatocytes
• pancreas
• Decreased GIT mobility, bronchiolar contractility, uterine contractility
• Increased BGL, insulin/glucagon release, lipolysis, K+ uptake and peripheral T4 to T3 conversion

Question 10

Resistance to adrenergic receptors

Answer 10

• prolonged stressor application
• secretion of cortisol from the adrenal cortex
• maintains higher blood glucose (gluconeogenesis)

Question 11

Cortisol

Answer 11

• transported bound to transcortin/albumin
• follows circadian rythym
• increases antagonism of insulin and stimulates glycogenesis
• increases BP via vasoconstriction

Question 12

Glucocorticoid receptors

Answer 12

• in the brain (neg. feedback behaviour)
• Liver, adipose tissue, skeletal tissue (metabolic effects)
• Heart, blood vessels (cardiac function, bp, immune function)

Question 13

What is exhaustion?

Answer 13

• resources of the body become depleted
• prolonged exposure to resistance leads to
  wasting of muscle
  suppression of the immune system
  failure of pancreatic beta cells
  damage to vital organs

Question 14

Pineal gland and melatonin

Answer 14

• small gland in the brain

- melatonin = body temp, appetite and sleep. Peaks at night and dow during day.

Question 15

main types of nutrients

Answer 15

• water
• carbohydrates
• lipids
• proteins
• minerals
• vitamins

Question 16

metabolism

Answer 16

all the chemical reaction of the body

Question 17

enzymes

Answer 17

• catalyse chemical reactions

- may require co-enzymes

Question 18

anabolic reactions

Answer 18

• synthesis or binding reactions

- endergonic - energy consuming

Question 19

catabolic reactions

Answer 19

• decomposition reactions

- exergonic - produce more energy than consumed

Question 20

catabolism and anabolism

Answer 20

• provides energy for the synthesis of other bonds
• drives other anabolic reactions
• anabolic reaction of ADP + a phosphate to produce ATP

Question 21

what happens to ingested carbohydrates

Answer 21

• catabolised to monosaccharide
• glucose
• fructose
• galactose
  After absorption monosaccharides are
• used to synthasie ATP, converted to glycogen and store.

Question 22

glucose anabolism

Answer 22

Glycogen

• storage form of carbohydrates
• synthesis stimulated by insulin

Question 23

gluconeogenesis

Answer 23

• synthesis of new glucose molecules from protein and lipid decomposition

Question 24

fat catabolism

Answer 24

• lipolysis

- hormones that enhance lipolysis = adrenaline, noradrenaline, cortisol

Question 25

fat anabolism

Answer 25

• insulin stimulates the liver and adipose cells to synthesize triglycerides
• all excess food types can be converted to triglycerides
• other lipids produced: phospholipids, lipoproteins, myelin sheaths.

Question 26

Lipoproteins

Answer 26

• transport lipid in blood

- largest and lightest to smallest and heaviest

Question 27

Chylomicrons (lipoproteins)

Answer 27

• carried by lymph to blood

- transport lipids to adipose

Question 28

Very low-density lipoproteins (ULDL’s)

Answer 28

• transport triglycerides to adipose

- converted to LDLS

Question 29

Low-density lipoproteins (LDL’s)

Answer 29

• transport 75% of cholesterol to cells

- deposit cholesterol to smooth muscles and arteries

Question 30

High-density lipoproteins

Answer 30

• transport cholesterol from body cells to liver for elimination

Question 31

What happens to ingested proteins?

Answer 31

• amino acids not stored as proteins
• used to synthesize
  ATP
  structural proteins
  enzymes
  replace damaged proteins
  antibodies
  transporter

Question 32

protein catabolism

Answer 32

• protein breakdown occurs regularly

Question 33

protein anabolism

Answer 33

• formulation of peptide bonds to synthesize proteins

Question 34

Amino acids

Answer 34

20 amino acids
10 essential - present in the diet
10 - synthesized by body

Question 35

Why are vitamins important?

Answer 35

• most cannot be synthesized by the body

- important for specific metabolic pathways

Question 36

Minerals

Answer 36

• help regulate enzymatic reactions or act as co-enzymes

- incorporation into structures