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Neuro Exam 4 Flashcards

1
Q

Neural Tube Development

A

-Ectoderm (top layer) becomes nervous system and skin
-Mesoderm
-Endoderm (lining closest to mom)
-Primitive streak (middle indention that eventually forms neural tube)
-Notocord (cartilage providing structure to embryo and increases gene expression-eventually becomes vertebra)
-neural crest
-neural tube (becomes spinal cord and brain)

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2
Q

Neurogenesis Step

A

-First Step of cellular development
-creation of neurons mostly around center of neural tube

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3
Q

Migration Step

A

-second step of cellular development
-neurons move from site of origin in neuronal plate to where they are supposed to be in the central nervous system.

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4
Q

Differentiation Step

A

-third step of cellular development
-each cell becomes a specific type of neuron or glial cell

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5
Q

Synpatogenesis Step

A

-fourth step of cellular development
-axons and dendrites extend to form many synapses

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6
Q

Apoptosis Step

A

-fifth step of cellular development
-cells that die off early in development

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7
Q

Synapse Rearrangement

A

-sixth step of cellular development
-synapses change and make new connections to other cells

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8
Q

Myelogenesis Step

A

-seventh step of cellular development
-creation of myelin sheaths

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9
Q

Radial Glial Cells

A

-Early glial cells in neural tube
-neurons wrap around glial cells and climb (like climbing a rope)

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10
Q

Gliogenesis

A

development of glial cells

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11
Q

Neurotrophins

A

proteins that support the development of neurons

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12
Q

Chemokines

A

proteins that induce directional movement of leukocytes

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13
Q

Synaptic Plasticity

A

as spine is used, changes in shape allow for stronger connections

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14
Q

Dendritic spine types

A

-Filopodia (squiggle)-least mature
-long thin
-thin
-stubby
-mushroom
-branched (most mature)

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15
Q

Synaptic Pruning

A

brain produces many neurons, then goes back through and selects the ones that works the best (efficient)

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16
Q

Differences in serotonin during development

A

sourced from the placenta

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17
Q

Differences in GABA during development

A

GABA acts as excitatory even though its usually inhibitory (fetus has high Cl and Na which is opposite from adults)

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18
Q

Adult Neurogenesis

A

Neurogenesis declines as we age resulting in less plasticity

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19
Q

myosin

A

Protein that makes up muscles. Myosin heads grab onto actin ropes to pull and shorten muscle (contraction).

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20
Q

actin

A

Protein that makes up muscles. Contributes to muscle contraction.

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21
Q

muscle fiber

A

large cells that make up muscles

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22
Q

myofibril

A

groups of parallel contracting fibers that make up muscle fibers

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23
Q

sarcomere

A

composed of actin and myosin

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24
Q

neuromuscular junctions/acetylcholine

A

-neuron talking to the muscle
-acetylcholine cues actin and myosin to interact
-myosin heads grab onto actin ropes and pull into middle to shorten muscle (contract)

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25
cross-bridge mechanism
bridge between actin and myosin
26
proprioception
-sensation which tells the body how it's positioned/moving -"what body pose am in in?"
27
muscle spindles
-receptor sensor -stretch receptors that detect changes in the length of a muscle
28
golgi tendon organs
-receptor sensor -manage muscle tension -in tendons
29
dorsal root
transmits sensory info from peripheral to central nervous system
30
ventral root
transmits motor info from spinal cord to rest of the body
31
efferent
-AWAY from brain -dorsal and sensory
32
afferent
-TO the brain -ventral and motor
33
decussation
Medulla crossover. Relaying of one side of the brain to the other (sending messages)
34
Brainstem in relation to motor movement
Mediator for sensory and motor messages (cranial nerves)
35
primary motor cortex
-CEO of motor control -initiates messages from brain to brain stem -located in dorsal portion of frontal lobe across top of brain
36
non-primary motor cortex
-Sits in front of PMC consisting of the supplementary motor cortex and premotor cortex -Not much is known other than it's the first consultant to brain messages -SMA seems to help posture, temporal coordination, and bimanual movements -think control and understanding movements of others
37
basal ganglia functions
-second consultant to brain messages -determines strength of a particular movement and its intensity -patterns like walking -balance between opposing muscles -"Go, no go?" signaling
38
Basal Ganglia areas
1.Dorsal Striatum (caudate nucleus & Putamen) 2. Globus Pallidus (external and internal) 3. Subthalamic Nucleus (STN) 4. Substantia Nigra (reticulata/parscompacta) -Works as a chain, each modifying a message, then gets sent back to cortex SNR(reticulata) & GPI(internal) are a team
39
direct pathways
Movement (the "Go")
40
indirect pathways
Inhibition of movement ("no go")
41
Parkinson's Disease
-degenerative disease caused by loss of dopamine cells in substantia nigra over time -symptoms= tremors, altered posture, impaired gait, muscle rigidity, slower movement -treatments= dopaminergic drug(Ldopa), deep brain stimulation(implanted electrodes)
42
deep brain stimulation
-treatment for Parkinson's -used when drug treatment doesn't work -theory that it works by stimulating remaining dopaminergic neurons
43
cerebellum
-balance, coordination, posture -can effect emotions and cognition cerebellar ataxia= odd walk, difficulty balancing, issues with targeting, eyes don't move smoothly peduncles=what connects cerebellum to brainstem
44
Ataxia
odd walk, difficulty balancing, issues with targeting, eyes don't move smoothly
45
Dysarthria
trouble speaking due to weak speech muscles
46
Dysmetria
unable to control distance, speed, and range of motion to perform a smoothly coordinated movement (over/under reach for an object)
47
Dysdiadochokinesis
inability to perform rapid alternating muscle movements (finger tapping)
48
Gait
impaired walking
49
postural instability
can't maintain equilibrium standing still or in movement
50
Oculomotor
Unable to control eye movement
51
Intentional Tremor
intense shaking which worsens as one gets closer to grabbing target
52
Order of messaging within the motor system
PMC, NMC, basal ganglia & cerebellum, back to cortex through thalamus, out through brainstem and spinal cord
53
free nerve endings
Pain receptors in epidermis (outermost layer) -detect pain and temperature -chemoreceptors (chemicals) -thermoreceptors (temperature) -cutaneous mechanoreceptors (touch/bruises/cuts)
54
Merkel's Discs
-located in dermis (second layer) -slow adapting -accurate with location of touch -vesicles pop releasing neurotransmitter
55
Meissner's Corpuscle
-located in dermis (second layer) -touch -fast adapting -accurate with location of touch -discs shift opening ion channels
56
Hair Follicle Receptors
-located in dermis (second layer) -wraps around base of hair follicle -when hair stretches, it opens ion channels
57
Pacinian Corpuscle
-located in hypodermis (third layer) -gauges how much pressure is received -detects vibrations fast adapting, but hard to detect location of vibration -ion channels open when spring is stretched
58
Ruffini's Endings
-located in hypodermis (third layer) -detects stretch -slow adapting and hard to detect where stretch originates
59
Pathway from sensory receptor to primary somatosensory cortex
-touch receptors release action potentials -message is sent to the spinal cord -sent to medulla -sent to thalamus -thalamus sends message to somatosensory cortex
60
seudounipolar sensory cells
-very long neurons -reaches organs in periphery while also reaching spinal cord
61
Decussation motor vs. sensory
motor=medulla sensory=thalamus
62
Primary somatosensory cortex & somatotopic map
located in anterior (front) part of the parietal lobe
63
changes in cortex following changes in sensory exposure
repeated exposure to something can lead to larger amount of cortex being designated to that given body part (trained).
64
phantom limb pains
-neighboring functions to area designated to lost limb can't always take over -designated area still sends signals to a limb that's not there -pain is response to no confirmation from the area back to the brain -brain thinks signal wasn't received!
65
TRP Channels
blend/combination of free nerve ending receptors (ex. heat and chemical pain)
66
A- Alpha fibers
-largest and fastest (plane) -info about proprioception -myelinated
67
A-Beta fibers
-second largest and second fastest (race car) -info about touch -myelinated
68
A-Delta fibers
-less fast and smaller (biking) -mechanical and thermal pain -myelinated
69
C fibers
-slowest and smallest (walking) -mechanical, thermal, AND chemical -non-myelinated
70
"Types" of schizophrenia
disorganized, paranoid, catatonic
71
positive schizophrenia symptoms
-hallucinations -delusions -disorganized thoughts and speech -movement disorders (catatonic)
72
negative schizophrenia symptoms
-flat affect (don't show emotion) -lack of pleasure -lack of motivation -withdrawal, little dialogue -lack of self care
73
cognitive schizophrenia symptoms
-poor executive functioning -trouble focusing -poor working memory
74
Hallucinations
false perception of the senses (touch, taste, sight, hearing, seeing, smell)
75
Delusions
false beliefs ("someone's trying to kill me")
76
Age of onset for schizophrenia
around 25 years old
77
Heritability of schizophrenia
not always genetic but stronger between twins, siblings, and children
78
Environmental factors effecting schizophrenia
-born in urban areas -maternal viral or parisite infections -paternal age -insufficient prenatal nutrition -stress -drug use
79
Neurodevelopmental Theory
genetic or environmental events during early developmental periods increased risk of schizophrenia -overlaps with multiple genetic disorders -male bias -physical congenital abnormalities predict schizophrenia (ex. low set ears)
80
Neurodegenerative Theory
degenerative diseases like Alzheimer's can put one at risk for schizophrenia
81
Neurotransmitter Theories
influenced by pharmacological research and treatments for schizophrenia
82
Dopamine Hypothesis
-excess of dopamine/receptors
83
Serotonin Theory
-some psychedelic drugs are serotonin agonists and produce hallucinations -some serotonin antagonists reduce symptoms
84
Glutamate Theory
-under-stimulation of receptors -excessive glutamatergic activity may cause excitotoxisity
85
Neuroinflammation Theory
symptoms are due to brain inflammation -higher levels of microglia in people at risk & with schizophrenia which causes inflammation
86
Unification of schizophrenia theories
all theories for onset of schizophrenia play a role together
87
Major Depressive Disorder Criteria and Symptoms
-depressed mood -anhedonia -weight loss/gain -oversleep/lack of sleep -fatigue/loss of energy -psychomotor agitation or retardation -feelings of worthlessness/ guilt -indecisive/lack of concentration -recurrent thoughts of death
88
Hippocampus changes in stress and depression
-shrinks when stressed
89
Functional brain changes in depression
-increased activity in prefrontal cortex and amygdala (amygdala won't stfu so cortex tries to overcompensate) -decreased activity in parietal, temporal, and anterior cingulate (brain fog, sad, memory)
90
Sleep disturbances in depression
-difficulty falling and staying asleep -enter REM early -REM pattern disturbed
91
Drugs used to treat depression
MAOIs, tricyclics, SSRIs
92
Significance of the delayed effectiveness of antidepressant drugs
don't notice the impact until person taking the antidepressant falls into depressive episode (when serotonin drops)
93
ECT for depression
electroconvulsive therapy -"shocks" -used when other treatments don't work -side effect=memory impairment
94
TMS for depression
Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation -magnetic wand -noninvasive -used when other treatments didn't work
95
DBS for depression
Deep-brain Tissue Stimulation -invasive surgery -electrodes implanted into brain (similar to Parkinson's treatment)
96
Learned helplessness
giving up on a behavior when it continues to get you nowhere
97
behavioral measures of depression in mice
-can genetically manipulate genes in mice to express similarities to depression (learned helplessness) and use an SSRI to treat it -mouse tail suspension and mouse forced swim test (SSRI makes the subject try to escape again)

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