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Neuro Exam 3 Flashcards

1
Q

Opioids

A

-neuropeptides
-in brain and spinal cord
-endorphines, dynorphins, enkephalins
-tied to dopamine- gives the reward/pleasure feeling
-euphoria, block pain signals

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2
Q

Oxytocin

A

-neuropeptide/hormone
-associated with maternal behavior, lactation, selective social bonding, sexual pleasure (love, lust, lactation, labor)
-increases during social stress
-more prominent in females

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3
Q

Gases as neurotransmitters

A

-Nitric Oxide and Carbon Monoxide
-Retrograde (move from post to presynaptic)
-lets presynaptic know to release more neurotransmitters
-no vesicles

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4
Q

CT scan

A

-structural imaging
-“Computed Tomography”
-uses X-rays to look at soft tissue structures
-dye is injected to make soft tissue visible
-Pros=cheap, quick, accessible
Cons=Not easy to see

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5
Q

MRI

A

-structural imaging
-“Magnetic Resonance Imaging”
-uses magnet to view radio waves
-views gray and white matter
-Pros=better details, view voxels for measuring (pixels)
Cons=slower, more expensive, sensitive to movement

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6
Q

DTI

A

-structural imaging
-“Diffusion Tensor Imaging”
-axons are visible along with their orientation
-views white matter
-Isotropy=water molecules can diffuse equally in any direction
-Anisotropy=restricted diffusion

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7
Q

fMRI

A

-functional imaging
-“Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging”
-most commonly used
-looks at oxygenated blood
-more oxygen=more activity in that brain area
-Cons=need to subtract background activity (not good for sleep/epilepsy)

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8
Q

MEG

A

-functional imaging
-“magnetoencephalography”
-changes in ion levels=changes in magnetic fields
-measures magnetic fields created by action potentials
-Pros=silent, some movement allowed, fast, see what the brain is doing in real time, good for sleep studies
-Cons= need full aluminum room, deeper tissue is harder to detect, expensive, need special technician

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9
Q

PET

A

-functional imaging
-“Positron Emission Tomography”
-radioactive dye injected which hooks onto oxygen/glucose
-detect changes in cell activity (neurotransmitters)
-Pros=see individual areas of anatomy, tracts, receptors, etc
-Cons=not the best resolution

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10
Q

EEG

A

-functional imaging
-doesn’t give actual image of the brain but detects action potentials directly
-activity shown on scribbles on paper
-Pros=inexpensive and portable

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11
Q

Ablation

A

localization technique
-invasive
-requires damaging a certain part of the brain to see how our functions change from it

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12
Q

TMS

A

-Localization technique
-Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation
-Magnet waved over one’s head stimulates the brain and stops action potentials (good for depression)

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13
Q

Viral Vectors

A

-localization technique
-invasive
-inject brain with modified virus DNA
-Examples=increase dopamine, turn cells off (apoptosis)

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14
Q

electrochemistry

A

electrical currents combined with chemicals to measure neurotransmitters

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15
Q

Amperometry

A

-way to measure neurotransmitters
-create electrical current in brain and axon terminals release a neurotransmitter (FAST)

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16
Q

Voltammetry

A

-way to measure neurotransmitters
-ramp current up or down
-measures multiple neurotransmitters at 1 time (SLOW)

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17
Q

Micro dialysis

A

-way to measure neurotransmitters
-probe implanted, extracts fluids, and replaces it with synthetic cerebral spinal fluid (SLOWEST)

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18
Q

Optogenetics

A

-way to measure neurotransmitters
-uses genetic code from algae (light receptor)
-implanted light will activate the implanted receptors which can control behavior

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19
Q

electrophysiology

A

-measures membrane potential changes allowing us to see action potentials in real time
-usually done in vitro (petri dish) but has recently been done in mice
-view only a few cells at a time

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20
Q

Golgi staining

A

looks at structure

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21
Q

C-fos staining

A

activity based- uses antibodies to detect/flag for proteins
-shows what neurons were recently active

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22
Q

Clarity

A

-like c-fos but stains multiple different proteins multiple different colors
-can make brain translucent by taking away fats only leaving the proteins behind
-hard to measure results

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23
Q

GWAS

A

-“Genome Wide Association Study”
-looks at SNPs (gene misspellings) to better understand disorders
-looks at whole genome (very large studies)

24
Q

microarray

A

-like GWAS but only looks at a selection of genes
-Pros=cheaper and less time
-Cons= must know enough about disorder to pick what genes are needed,

25
RNAseq
-look at whole genome to see if genes are being expressed -if RNA is present, the gene is "on" or expressed
26
Animal models
-changing animals genetic code -knock out=take out gene -knock up=increase gene -wild type=control -done with mice, worms, fruit flies, yeast
27
endogenous
made inside the body
28
exogenous
made outside the body
29
agonist
similar shape and binds in same place as neurotransmitter -full agonist=100% same job as neurotransmitter -partial-only does part of the same job
30
antagonist
blocks binding site from being activated -NO EFFECT
31
inverse agonist
-rare -inhibits the cell -activates chloride instead of sodium
32
down regulation
some receptors are removed to avoid overexciting the cell (avoid chance of cell dying)
33
up regulation
increase sensitivity, overwhelms binding sites
34
high binding affinity
very similar to neurotransmitter making it MORE likely to bind
35
low binding affinity
less similar to neurotransmitter making it bind for shorter periods of time (less effective)
36
high efficacy
drug has strong effect- high binding and strong agonist
37
low efficacy
drug has low effect- low binding and less strong of agonist
38
Considerations for binding of drug molecules
-drugs can be more specific about which neurotransmitter family to bind to -drugs can bridge across multiple receptors -dose and route can change how the drug effects us
39
MAOIs
-antidepressant -inhibits MAOs (enzymes that break down neurotransmitters) -allows neurotransmitter to build up -no longer used since it also inhibited MAOs in the gut leading to things like hypertension
40
Tricyclics
-antidepressant -blocks transporters which blocks reuptake of neurotransmitters -inhibits sodium channels stopping action potentials -also not used much due to lethal effects on rest of the body
41
SSRIs
-antidepressant -"selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor" -only blocks serotonin reuptake instead of all 3 (dopamine and norepinephrine) -most commonly used
42
Anxiolytics
-anxiety is when there is more activity in the brain than wanted -must increase GABA
43
orthosteric
where natural neurotransmitter sits in
44
allosteric
other sites neurotransmitters don't sit in -help the neurotransmitter
45
Barbiturates
-anxiolytic -positive allosteric modulators (PAM) -increase effectiveness of GABA by opening chloride channels for longer -anything ending in "arbital" -used to induce anesthesia
46
Benzodiazepines
-PAM -enhance GABA -like barbiturates but less likely to overdose -usually used for acute anxiety
47
Alcohol
-PAM -biphasic effect (increase in activity and then inhibition) -depression and anxiety increase after use (bad) -not prescribed
48
Cannabis
-THC -endogenous set of receptors -cannabinoid receptors on presynaptic cell -retrograde messaging- tell presynaptic to make more of neurotransmitter -mostly found on GABA axon terminals
49
Caffeine
-stimulant -more adenosine=less activity (more sleep pressure) -caffeine is an antagonist so it blocks off receptors -less sleep pressure!
50
Nicotine
-stimulant -high acetylcholine= high energy -nicotine is a true agonist -can also bind to receptors along with the neurotransmitters causing you to be more awake and alert
51
Cocaine
-stimulant -mostly effects dopamine -cocaine blocks reuptake transporters allowing dopamine to build up in the cell
52
Amphetamine
-stimulant -effects dopamine -blocks reuptake in transporters -transporter can be tricked into taking it into the cell leading to enzymes breaking that down instead of dopamine (dopamine then builds up) -with higher doses, transporter will malfunction and push build up of dopamine out rather than allowing anything in the cell
53
LSD
-Hallucinogen -agonist for serotonin -altered perceptions (not true hallucinations)
54
PCP
-ionotropic glutamate receptor antagonist -can cause seizures -true hallucinations (paranoia) -reduced sense of pain -cellular damage/strokes
55
MDMA
-hallucinogen -blocks transporters for dopamine and serotonin -like amphetamines (more alert and high energy) -gives feeling of euphoria

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