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Nervous System, Neurons and Neurotransmitters Flashcards

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1
Q

What are the two main divisions of the nervous system?

A

The central nervous system (CNS) and the peripheral nervous system (PNS)

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2
Q

What does the CNS include?

A

The brain and spinal cord

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3
Q

What does the PNS transmit signals between?

A

The CNS and the rest of the body

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4
Q

What are the two parts of the PNS?

A

The somatic nervous system (SNS) and the autonomic nervous system (ANS)

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5
Q

What is the SNS responsible for?

A

Actions that are usually considered voluntary

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6
Q

What is the ANS responsible for?

A

Activities that are usually considered involuntary

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7
Q

What are the two parts of the ANS?

A

The sympathetic nervous system and the parasympathetic nervous system

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8
Q

What is the sympathetic nervous system responsible for?

A

Preparing the body for action (fight-or-flight response)

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9
Q

What is the parasympathetic nervous system responsible for?

A

Rest and relaxation, returning the body to pre-emergency state

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10
Q

Give an example where both systems play a cooperative role:

A

The male sexual response - parasympathetic for erection, sympathetic for ejaculation

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11
Q

What are the two main types of cells in the nervous system?

A

Neurons and glia

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12
Q

What are the main parts of a neuron?

A

Dendrites, soma (cell body), and axon

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13
Q

What is the function of dendrites?

A

Receive information from other cells

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14
Q

What is the function of the soma?

A

Contains the nucleus, mitochondria, ribosomes, and other essential cell components

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15
Q

What is the function of the axon?

A

Transmits information to other cells

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16
Q

What is an action potential?

A

An electrical impulse that occurs when a neuron is sufficiently stimulated

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17
Q

How is stimulus intensity encoded in neurons?

A

By the frequency of action potentials and/or the number of neurons firing

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18
Q

What is synaptic transmission?

A

The transmission of information between neurons

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19
Q

How does synaptic transmission usually occur?

A

Chemically, through the release of neurotransmitters

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20
Q

What are the two main types of neurotransmitters?

A

Small-molecule neurotransmitters and neuropeptides

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21
Q

What is gila’s role in the nervous systems

A

Providing neurons with structural support, insulation and nutrients

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22
Q

Myelin is produced by

A

gila and speed up the conduction of information through the axon

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23
Q

What initiates the conduction of information within a neuron?

A

A neuron’s dendrites receiving sufficient stimulation from other neurons

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24
Q

What is the state of a neuron prior to stimulation called?

A

The resting state

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25
Q

What is the charge distribution in a neuron during the resting state?

A

The fluid inside the cell is negatively charged relative to the fluid outside the cell.

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26
Q

What happens when a neuron is sufficiently stimulated?

A

Channels in the cell membrane open, allowing positively charged sodium ions to enter the cell, causing it to become depolarized (less negative).

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27
Q

What happens when stimulation reaches a minimum threshold?

A

Complete depolarization occurs, triggering an electrical impulse known as an action potential.

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28
Q

What happens after an action potential occurs?

A

The neuron returns to its resting state.

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29
Q

How are action potentials characterized?

A

They are all-or-none responses, meaning they either occur or don’t occur, and when they occur, they have the same intensity.

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30
Q

How is stimulus intensity encoded in neurons?

A

By the frequency of action potentials generated by a neuron and/or the number of neurons generating action potentials, not by the intensity of individual action potentials.

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31
Q

What is the transmission of information between neurons referred to as?

A

Synaptic transmission

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32
Q

How does synaptic transmission usually occur?

A

Chemically

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33
Q

What initiates the release of a neurotransmitter during synaptic transmission?

A

An action potential reaching the axon terminal (end of the axon)

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34
Q

What is the synaptic cleft?

A

The space between the axon terminal of the presynaptic neuron and the dendrite of an adjacent postsynaptic neuron

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35
Q

Into what space is the neurotransmitter released?

A

The synaptic cleft

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36
Q

What are the two possible effects a neurotransmitter can have on the postsynaptic neuron?

A

Excitatory (increase likelihood of an action potential) or inhibitory (decrease likelihood of an action potential)

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37
Q

How is a neurotransmitter inactivated after having its effect?

A

It is absorbed by the presynaptic neuron or broken down by an enzyme

38
Q

What is neuroplasticity?

A

The brain’s ability to modify, change, and adapt its structure and function throughout life and in response to experience.

39
Q

What is homologous area adaptation?

A

When functions of a damaged brain area shift to the corresponding area in the opposite hemisphere, often negatively impacting pre-existing functions of that area.

40
Q

Give an example of homologous area adaptation.

A

If the right parietal lobe is damaged in childhood, the left parietal lobe may take over visuospatial functions, impacting its normal mathematical functions.

41
Q

What is cross-modal reassignment?

A

When a brain area deprived of its normal sensory input changes function to process a different sensory input.

42
Q

Give an example of cross-modal reassignment.

A

Neurons in the visual cortex of a blind person processing somatosensory (touch) input instead of visual input.

43
Q

What is map expansion?

A

The temporary or permanent enlargement of a cortical region due to practice/exercise, recruiting nearby neurons.

44
Q

When does map expansion commonly occur?

A

When learning and practicing a new skill like playing an instrument.

45
Q

What is compensatory masquerade?

A

Using alternative cognitive processes mediated by an intact brain area when usual processes from a damaged area can no longer be used.

46
Q

Give an example of compensatory masquerade.

A

Relying on memorizing landmarks when spatial sense is lost after a brain injury.

47
Q

4 types of Neuroplasticity are

A

Homologous, Cross-modal reassignment, Map expansion, and Compensatory masquerade

48
Q

What are the two main classes of neurotransmitters?

A

Small-molecule neurotransmitters and neuropeptides

49
Q

How are they classified into these two groups?

A

Based on their size and how they are synthesized

50
Q

Where are small-molecule neurotransmitters synthesized and stored?

A

In the axon terminal

51
Q

Where are neuropeptides synthesized?

A

In the cell body and then transmitted to the axon terminal

52
Q

Give two examples of neuropeptides.

A

Enkephalin and endorphin

53
Q

Neurotransmitters are

A

chemical substances that transmit information between neurons.

54
Q

What type of effects do enkephalin and endorphin have?

A

They are endogenous opioids that have analgesic (pain-relieving) and euphoric effects.

55
Q

What are some functions of dopamine?

A

It contributes to movement, personality, mood, sleep, and has been linked to several disorders.

56
Q

What disorder has been linked to low dopamine levels in the substantia nigra?

A

Parkinson’s disease

57
Q

What disorder has been linked to excessive dopamine in the caudate nucleus?

A

Tourette’s disorder

58
Q

What is the dopamine hypothesis of schizophrenia?

A

Schizophrenia is due to high levels of dopamine or hyperactivity of dopamine receptors.

59
Q

What is the mesolimbic dopaminergic pathway involved in?

A

The brain’s reward circuit and reinforcing effects of drugs of abuse

60
Q

What areas are connected by the mesocortical dopaminergic pathway?

A

Ventral tegmental area and prefrontal cortex

61
Q

What functions is the mesocortical pathway involved in?

A

Emotion, motivation, executive cognitive functions

62
Q

What is the function of the tuberoinfundibular dopaminergic pathway?

A

Hormone regulation, especially inhibition of prolactin release

63
Q

What areas are connected by the nigrostriatal dopaminergic pathway?

A

Substantia nigra and dorsal striatum (caudate and putamen)

64
Q

What is the role of the nigrostriatal pathway?

A

Key role in production of purposeful movement

65
Q

What are some functions of acetylcholine (ACh)?

A

Movement, arousal, attention, and memory

66
Q

How is ACh involved in movement?

A

ACh causes muscles to contract at neuromuscular junctions.

67
Q

What disorder involves the destruction of ACh receptors, causing muscle weakness?

A

Myasthenia gravis

68
Q

What areas of the brain are linked to ACh’s role in memory?

A

The entorhinal cortex and hippocampus

69
Q

What type of memory impairment is associated with low ACh in these areas?

A

The early memory loss seen in Alzheimer’s disease

70
Q

Can ACh be either excitatory or inhibitory?

A

Yes, ACh serves both excitatory and inhibitory functions in the nervous system.

71
Q

Give an example of an excitatory role of ACh.

A

Causing muscle contraction at the neuromuscular junction.

72
Q

Give an example of an inhibitory role of ACh.

A

Inhibiting the release of certain other neurotransmitters in the brain.

73
Q

Glutamate is an excitatory neurotransmitter and contributes to

A

movement, emotions, learning, and memory

74
Q

Excessive glutamate can cause cell damage and

A

death which is referred to as “glutamate-induced excitotoxicity”

75
Q

glutamate-induced excitotoxicity

A

is believed to contribute to a number of conditions including stroke, seizure disorders, and several neurodegenerative diseases including Huntington’s disease and Alzheimer’s disease.

76
Q

Norepinephrine is an

A

excitatory neurotransmitter and is involved in arousal, attention, learning, memory, stress, and mood.

77
Q

According to the catecholamine hypothesis, some forms of depression are caused by a

A

deficiency of norepinephrine while mania is due to excessive norepinephrine.

78
Q

What is the chemical name for serotonin?

A

5-hydroxytryptamine (5-HT)

79
Q

Is serotonin excitatory or inhibitory?

A

Inhibitory

80
Q

What functions does serotonin play a role in?

A

Arousal, sleep, sexual activity, mood, appetite, pain

81
Q

What conditions have been linked to low serotonin levels?

A

Depression, increased suicide risk, bulimia, OCD, migraines

82
Q

What has been observed with serotonin levels in anorexia?

A

Higher-than-normal brain levels can cause anxiety/obsessive thoughts, but restricting food lowers serotonin

83
Q

Is GABA excitatory or inhibitory?

A

GABA is the primary inhibitory neurotransmitter

84
Q

What functions is GABA involved in?

A

Memory, mood, arousal, sleep, motor control

85
Q

What conditions are low GABA levels linked to?

A

Insomnia, seizures, anxiety

86
Q

How do benzodiazepines work on GABA?

A

They reduce anxiety/induce sleep by amplifying GABA’s effects

87
Q

What is an agonist?

A

Mimics or increases the effects of a neurotransmitter

88
Q

What is a partial agonist?

A

Produces weaker effects similar to a neurotransmitter

89
Q

What is an inverse agonist?

A

Produces opposite effects to a neurotransmitter/agonist

90
Q

What is an antagonist?

A

Blocks or reduces the effects of a neurotransmitter/agonist without producing its own effects

91
Q

higher-than-normal blood levels of serotonin have been found in individuals with

A

autism spectrum disorder and individuals with chronic schizophrenia who also have enlarged cerebral ventricles and/or cerebral atrophy.

92
Q

Some authors distinguish between direct and indirect agonists:

A

Direct agonists attach to receptor sites and act like neurotransmitters, while indirect agonists increase the availability of a neurotransmitter but do not attach to receptor sites.

Psych (7 decks)

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