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Anatomy MIDTERM > Nervous System COPY > Flashcards

Nervous System COPY Flashcards

1
Q

neurons

A
  • specialized to transmit information in the form of electrochemical impulses (action potentials)
  • recieve chemical –> turn to electrical –> turn back to chemical when going to axon terminal
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2
Q

nervous system

A
  • signaling network with branches carrying information directly to and from specific target tissues
  • body’s control and communication center
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3
Q

nervous system structure

A
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4
Q

central nervous system

A

(brain and spinal cord)

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5
Q

peripheral nervous system

A

(the nerves and receptors outside CNS)

  • comprises sensory and motor divisions
  • peripheral nerves all enter or leave the CNS, either from the spinal cord (the spinal nerves) or the brain (cranial nerves)
    • can be senory or motor or mized
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6
Q

nervous control

A
  • communication: impulses across synapses
  • speed: very rapid
  • duration: short term and reversible
  • target pathway: specific (through nerves) to specific cells
  • action: causes glands to secrete or muscles to contract
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7
Q

hormonal control

A
  • communication: hormones in the blood
  • speed: relatively slow
  • duration: longer lasting effects:
  • target pathway: hormones broadcast to target cellls everywhere
  • action: causes changes in metabolic activity
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8
Q

three broad functions of nervous system:

A
  • detecting stimuli
  • interpreting them
  • initiating appropriate responses
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9
Q

spinal cord

A
  • cyclinder of nervous tissue extending from the base of the brain down the back, protected by the spinal column
  • it transmits messages to and from the brain, and controls spinal reflexes
  • sensory neurons enter the spinal cord by the dorsal root
  • motor neurons leave the spinal cord by the ventral root
  • the spinal cord has an H shaped central are of gray matter, comprising nerve cell bodies, dendrites, and synapses around a central canal filled with cerebrospinal fluid
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10
Q

sensory division

A
  • sensory nerves arise from sensory and carry messages to the CNS for processing
  • sensory system keeps the CNS aware of the external and internal environments
  • includes the familiar sense organs such as ears, eyes, and taste buds as well as internal receptors that monitor internal state
    • thirst, hunger, body position, movement, pain
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11
Q

motor division

A
  • motor nerves carry impulses from the CNS to effectors: muscles and glands
  • two parts:
    • somatic nervous system
      • autonomic nervous system
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12
Q

somatic nervous system

A

PNS

  • the neurons that carry impulses to voluntary (skeletal) muscles
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13
Q

autonomic nervous system

A

PNS

  • regulates involuntary visceral functions through reflexes
    • heart rate, gut peristalsis involving smooth muscle, pupil reflex, and sweating
  • voluntary control over some basic reflexes (bladder emptying) can be learned
  • two divisions:
    • parasympathetic
    • sympathetic
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14
Q

explain the significance of the separation of the motor division of the PNS into somatic and autonomic divisions

A

The somatic division is in control of voluntary actions, while the autonomic division is in control of involuntary action for homeostasis.

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15
Q

parasympathetic division

A

ANS. Excitatory.

  • nerves release acetylcholine
    • rapidly deactivated at the synapse and its effects are short lived and localized
  • nerves from brainstem and sacral regions
  • iris of eye, tear glands, salivary glands: constricts pupil, stimulates secretion of the glands
  • heart and lungs: slows heart rate, dilates coronary blood vessels, constricts bronchial muscle
  • liver, stomach, small intestine, pancrease: increases peristalsis, promotes sugar storage, and insulin and enzyme secretion
  • large intestine, bladder, genital organs: increases peristalsis, causes contraction of bladder wall, stiulates genital erection in both sexes and secretion in females
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16
Q

sympathetic division

A

ANS. Inhibitory.

  • sympathetic nerves release norepinephrine
    • enters the bloodstream and is deactivated slowly
  • widespread and long lasting effects than parasympathetic stimulation
  • nerves from thoracic and lumbar regions
  • fight or flight response: dilates arteries and increases the rate and force at which the heart contracts
    • heart rate is increased when increased blood flow to the heart causes reflex stimulation of the accelerator center
  • iris of eye, salivary glands: dilates pupil and decreases secretion of glands
  • heart and lungs: increases heart rate, constricts coronary blood vessels, dilates bronchial muscle
  • liver, stomach, small intestine, pancreas: decreases peristalsis, promotes sugar release from liver, inhibits insulin and enzyme secretion
  • large intestine: decreases peristalsis
  • bladder and genital organs: causes relaxation of bladder wall, stimulates pregnant uterus to contract, stimulates ejaculation
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17
Q

explain why the sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions of the ANS are often described as being opposing or antagonistic in function

A

The sympathetic division of the ANS is more active when the body is preparing for action (fight or flight) while the parasympathetic division is more active in conserving energy and replenishing energy reserves (‘feed or breed’ or ‘rest and digest’). In general, the sympathetic NS stimulates where the parasympathetic inhibits and vice versa.

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18
Q

explain why sympathetic stimulation tends to have more widespread and longer lasting effects than parasympathetic stimulation

A

Most sympathetic postganglionic nerves release norepinephrine which enters the bloodstream and is deactivated slowly. In contrast, parasympathetic nerves release acetylcholine which is rapidly deactivated at the synapse with short lived localized effects.

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19
Q

with reference to the emptying of the bladder, explain how conscious control can modify a reflex activity

A

Bladder emptying is under reflex control and is stimulated by stretching of the bladder wall. Stretching causes both a cnonsciou desire to urinate and an unconscious reflex contraction of the bladder wall and relaxation of the internal eurethral sphincter. The conscious part of the brain also sends impulses to relax the external eurethral spincter. Because both conscious and unconscious controls are involved, urination can be voluuntarily stopped and started at will.

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20
Q

asthma can be treated by inhaling a drug that mimics the action noradrenaline on the sympathetic NS. describe how this drug could be used to target the patient’s respiratory system

A

Inhalation fo the drug results in dilation of the broncioles in the lungs and the patient is able to breath more easily.

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21
Q

ependymal cells

A
  • not neurons –> epithelial tissues (not a neuron)
  • cilia - keeps CSF in motion
  • fluid filled cavity - CSF
  • brain/spinal cord tissue - connected by junctions to brain or spinal tissue
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22
Q

nucleus idk

A
  • dna –> rna –> ribosome
  • ribosomes read RNA –> make proteins which do the work
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23
Q

microglia

A
  • act as immune cells in brain
  • detect and phagocytize (eat) pathogens
  • usually detect things that pass the blood brain barrier
  • act like white blood cells
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24
Q

neuroglial cells

A

glue –> connects neurons

  • insulate
  • support –> provide nutrients
  • protect
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25
Q

oligodendrocytes

A

sew

  • fewer in quantity than schwann chells (PNS)
  • the way that CNS neurons myelinate themselves
  • neuronal pathways hsorter and less myelenated
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26
Q

astrocytes

A
  • type of glial cells
  • connect neurons to blood vessels
  • most abundant supportive cells in the nervous system
  • repair of brain and spinal cord
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27
Q

blood brain barrier

A
  • a wall
  • blocks verything (mostly), even antibodies
  • pros: pathogens are very unlikely to invade the brain
  • cons: antibodies can’t get to the brain; keeps useful drugs out sometimes
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28
Q

idk

A
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29
Q

parts of brain

A
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30
Q

dura

A

connects brain to skull

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31
Q

frontal lobe

A
  • movement
  • intelligence
  • reasoning
  • behavior
  • memory
  • personality
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32
Q

temporal lobe

A
  • speech
  • behavior
  • memory
  • hearing
  • vision
  • emotions
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33
Q

parietal lobe

A
  • intelligence
  • reasoning
  • telling right from left
  • language
  • sensation
  • reading
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34
Q

occipital lobe

A
  • vision
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35
Q

cerebellum

A

little war brain

  • balance
  • coordination
  • fine muscle control
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36
Q

brain stem

A
  • breathing
  • blood pressure
  • heart beat
  • swallowing
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37
Q

4 cavities of the brain

A
  • 4 cavities lined with ependymal cells
38
Q

eye

A
39
Q

rods and cones

A
  • rod
    • dark, contrast
    • low visual acuity
    • sensitivity
  • cone
    • color, bright light
    • high visual activity
    • activity RGB
  • rods are more senstivie to light than cones and function better in low light
  • cones share higher spatial acuity than rods
40
Q

ganglion cells

A

respond to potentials with depolarizations

41
Q

photoreceptors

A

changes in structure based on light

42
Q

photochemical pigment

A

colored molecule which reacts with light (rhodopsin and iodopsin)

43
Q

explain how light is able to produce a nerve impulse in the ganglion cells:

A

photopigment and light react, changing the shape of this leads to hyper depolarization which goes to the optic nerve fibers

44
Q

vision occurs:

A

Light reaching the photoreceptor cells must form an image of the retina. This requires refraction of the incoming light, accommodation of the lens, and constriction of the pupil.

45
Q

refraction

A
  • anterior of the eye
  • bending the incoming light rays so that they focus on the retina
  • most refraction occurs at the cornea
  • the lens adjusts the degree of refraction to produce a sharp image
46
Q

accommodation

A
  • adjusts they eye for near or far objects
  • constriction of the pupil narrows the diameter of the hole thorugh which light enters the eye, preventing light rays entering from the periphery
47
Q

blind spot

A
  • the point at which there are no photoreceptor cells
  • the point at which the nerve fibers leave the eye as the optic nerve
  • nerve impulses travel along the optic nerves to the visual processing areas in the cerbral cortex
  • images on the retina are inverted and reversed by the lens but the brain interprets the info it recieves to correct for this image reversal
  • The natural blind spot (scotoma) is due to lack of receptors (rods or cones) where the optic nerve and blood vessels leave the eye.
48
Q

cornea

A

covers the iris, refracts light rays

49
Q

ciliary body

A

secretes aqueous humor, alters the shape of the lens to adjust point of focus by contracting and releasing

50
Q

iris

A

provides eye color and regulates entry of light into the eye

51
Q

normal vision

A

light rays from an object ar ebent sufficiently by the cornea and lens, and converge on the central fovea. a clear image is formed. images are focused upside down and mirror reversed on the retina. the brain automatically itnerprets the image as right way up.

52
Q

myopia

A

short sightedness

  • elongated eyeball or thickened lens
  • leftuncorrected, distant objects have a point of focus in front of the retina and appear blurred
  • to correct: concave lenses are used to move the point of focus backward to the retina
53
Q

hypermetropia

A

long sightedness

  • results from a hsortened eyeball or from a lens that is too thin
  • left uncorrected, light is focused at a point that would be behind the retina and near objects appear blurred
  • mild or moderate, occurs naturally in young kids, make by overcome by accomodation
  • severe. corrective lenses are used to bring th point of focus forward to produce a clear imahge with a convex lens
54
Q

retina

A

focuses light to form an image in the back of the eye; when light reaches retina, it is absorbed by photosensitive pigments

55
Q

optic nerve

A

where cell’s axons exit eye to form optic nerve

56
Q

central fove

A

area with highest cone density

57
Q

reflexes

A

rapid response to stimuli

58
Q

monosynaptic, polysynaptic

A
  • monosynaptic: only one CNS synapse
    • knee jerk reflex
  • polysynaptic: two or more
    • pain withdrawal reflex
59
Q

knee jerk reflex

A

simple deep tendon reflex that is used to test the function of the femoral nerve and spinal cord. helps to maintain posture and balance when walking.

60
Q

pupillary light reflex

A

rapid expansion or contraction of the pupils in response to the intensity of light falling on the retina. polysynaptic cranial reflex and can be used to test for brain death.

61
Q

newborn reflexes

A

newborns exhbit a nunber of primitive reflexes in response to particular stimuli. these reflexes disappear within a few months of birth as the child develops.

  • tests if CNS is making appropriate connections
  • grasp reflex
  • startle/moro reflex
    • sudden noise will cause the kid to throw out its arms, extend the legs and head, and cry
62
Q
A
63
Q

idk

A
64
Q

idk

A
65
Q

pain withdrawal

A
  1. Pain receptors in the skin detect stimulus
  2. Sensory message is interpreted through a relay neuron. In a monosynaptic reflex arc, the sensory neuron synapses directly with the motor neuron
  3. The impulse reaches the motor end plate and causes muscle contraction
66
Q

spine

A

spinal cord goes thru foramen

67
Q

cerebrum

A
  • divided into two cerebral hemispheres
  • many complex roles
  • sensory, motor, and association areas, and is involved in memory, emotion, language, reasoning, and sensory processing
68
Q

ventricles

A
  • cavities containing the CSF, which absorbs shocks and delivers nutritive substances
69
Q

thalamus

A
  • the main relay center for all sensory messages that enter the brain before they are transmitted to the cerebrum
  • relay center for all sensory info
  • sensory neurons –> thalamus –> cerebrum
70
Q

hypothalamus

A
  • controls the autononic nervous system and links nervous and endocrine systems
  • regulates appetite, thirst, body temperature, and sleep
  • controls the autonomic nervous system
  • regulates hunger, thermostat, sleep, sex drive
71
Q

how is the brain protected?

A

The brain is protected against damage by the skull, cerebral column, the meninges, and the cerebrospinal (CSF) fluid.

72
Q

meninges

A

membranes overlying the brain

  • collectively three membranes:
    • tough double layered outer dura mater
    • web like middle arachnoid mater
    • inner delicate pia mater that adheres to the surface of the brain
73
Q

cerebrospinal fluid

A
  • absorbs shock and deliver nutrients
  • formed from the blood by clusers of capillaries on the roof of each of the brain’s ventricles
  • comstantly circulated through the ventricles of the brain (and into the spinal cord), returning to the blood via specialized projections of the middle menigeal layer
  • if the passages that normally allow the CSF to exit the brain become blocked, the CSF accumulates within the brain’s ventricles causing a condition called hydrocephalus
74
Q

label neuron

A
75
Q

relay neuron

A

links sensory and motor neurons in the CNS (as in reflexes)

  • found only in the CNS and can be sensory or motor
    • the more complex the required action, the greater the number of interneurons involved
  • dendrites are short
  • axon is short within the CNS
76
Q

motor (efferent) neuron

A

transmits impulses from the CNS to effectors (muscles or glands)

  • send impulses away from brain and spinal cord
  • axons of motor neurons may be very long
  • dendrites are short
  • usually attached to gland/muscle
77
Q

sensory (afferent) neuron

A

transmits impulses from senory receptors to the brain or spinal cord

  • send impulses to the brain and spinal cord
  • sense organ (pressure receptor) in the skin
  • two axonal branches, one central (to the CNS) and one peripheral (to the sensory receptor). the axons of sensory nurons tend to be short
  • dendrites are long compared with other neurons
78
Q

dendrite

A
  • recieve info from other neurons/environment
  • associated with sensory receptors
  • thin processes from the cell body that recieve stimuli
  • neurons have many dendrites
  • info from other neurons/environment
79
Q

axon

A
  • conducting fiber
  • conducts electricity to axon terminals
  • an extension of the cell that transmits the nerve impulse to another to another neuron or to an effector
  • the axon hillock is a specialized part of the soma where the axon begins and action potentials are generated
80
Q

soma

A
  • cell body
  • contains the organelles to keep the neuron alive and functioning
81
Q

explain why the axons of relay neurons are short, whereas those of motor neurons may be very long

A

the impulses of relay neurons don’t need to travel far because they are located within the CNS. motor neurons’ impulses need to travel fron the CNS to the muscles or glands, outside of the CNS

82
Q

myelin

A
  • where conduction speed is important, the axons of nurons are sheathed within a lipid and protein rich substance called myeline
  • produced by oligodendrocytes in the CNS and by Schwann cells in the PNS
  • actis as insulator, increasing the speed at which nerve impulses travel because it prevents ion flow across the neuron membrane and forces the current to jump along the axon from node to node
83
Q

nodes of ranvier

A

gaps between neighboring Schwann cells and their sheathes at intervals along the axons of muelinated neurons

84
Q

non-myelinated axons

A
  • relatively more common in the CNS where the distances travelled are less than in the PNS
  • the axons are envased within the cytoplasmic extensions of oligodendrocytes or Schwann cells, rather than within a myeline sheath
  • impulses travel more slowly because the nerve impulse is prpagated along the entire axon membrane, rather than jumping from node to node as occurs in myelinated neurons
  • schwann cell wraps several axons and does not produce myeline
85
Q

myelinated neurons

A
  • myeline layers wrapped around axon
  • schwann cell wraps only one axon and produces myelin
  • insulating fatty layer that speeds transmission
  • insulates action potential
86
Q

action potential

A

all or none

  • Number of neurons recruited for a stimulus, grades that stimulus
87
Q

axon terminals

A
  • transmitters
  • where chemicals are released
  • electrical –> chemical
88
Q

synapse

A
  • empty space between dendrites of one and terminal of the other
  • release of neurotransmitters
89
Q

Approximately 100 people suffer from a rare genetic abnormality in which they have insenitivity to pain. In all other ways these people are normal. What would explain this abnormality?

A

Because the personw is able to preform other normal activities, both afferent and efferent neurons are present. Efferent, moton, neurons carry a message to the muscles. Blocked synapses in efferent neurons would stop movement, not sensation. The insensitivity to pain is sue to a lack of pain receptors on the dendrites.

90
Q

Anorexia is an eating disorder that results in individuals being severely underwight. Their starvation diet also damages nerves. Which part of the neuron would be damaged from a severely restricted diet?

A

The neuron’s myeline sheath would be depleted, resulting in slow responses.

Anatomy MIDTERM (12 decks)

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