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Human Biology > Nervous System and Endocrine System > Flashcards

Nervous System and Endocrine System Flashcards

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AP® Biology flashcards Biology 101 flashcards
1
Q

exocrine gland

A
  • secrete into a duct that carries the secretion to the body surface/body cavities
    eg. sweat glands, mucous glands, salivary glands
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2
Q

endocrine gland

A
  • secrete hormones into the extracellular fluid that surrounds the cells that make up the gland
  • usually passes into capillaries to be transported by blood
    eg. pinel, thyroid, parathyroid, pancreas, testes, ovaries, adrenal, thymus, hypothalamus
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3
Q

hormones

A
  • proteins, steroids or amines

- may affect all cells of the body or only particular groups (target cells) or particular organs (target organ)

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4
Q

protein/amine hormones

A
  • work by attaching to receptor proteins in the membrane of the target cell
  • hormone and receptor combining causes secondary messengers substance to diffuse through a cell and activate particular enzyme
  • lock and key
  • limited # of receptors in each membrane
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5
Q

steroid hormones

A
  • work by entering target cells and combining with a receptor protein inside the cell
  • may be in mitochondria/nucleus
  • hormone-receptor complex activates the genes controlling the formations of particular proteins
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6
Q

hormones may…

A
  • activate certain genes in the nucleus so that a particular enzyme or structural proteins is produced
  • change in shape or structure of an enzyme so that is is turned ‘on’ or ‘off’
  • change the rate of production of an enzyme or structural protein by changing the rate of transportation or translation during protein production
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7
Q

enzyme amplification

A
  • a series of chemical reactions in which the product of one step is an enzyme that produces an even greater number of product molecules
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8
Q

hormone clearance

A
  • turning off hormone is done by breaking it down
  • can be done in target cells, but also liver and kidney
  • excreted in bile or urine
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9
Q

control of hormone secretions

A
  • regulated by negative feedback systems whereby the response produced by the secretion of the hormone is the opposite of the stimulus that caused the secretion
  • some involve release of regulating factors from hypothalamus/brain (regulate function of pituitary gland)
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10
Q

hypothalamus

A
  • located at base of brain
  • regulates many basic functions eg. body temp, water balance, heart rate
  • many functions carried out through pituitary gland
  • produces many hormones
  • some carried by the blood to anterior lobe of the pituitary gland, where they stimulate/inhibit the release of hormones made in the anterior lobe
  • others pass along nerve fibres from hypothalamus to posterior lobe of pituitary where they are then secreted
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11
Q

pituitary gland

A
  • lies just under hypothalamus and is joined to hypothalamus by a stalk called INFUNDIBULUM
  • vital for normal functioning
  • consists of anterior and posterior lobes
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12
Q

anterior lobe of pituitary

A
  • front
  • no nerved connecting it to the hypothalamus but connected by complex network of blood vessels
  • controlled by releasing and inhibiting factors secreted by the hypothalamus (secreted into extracellular fluids around cells of the hypothalamus and carried by blood to the anterior lobe)
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13
Q

posterior lobe of pituitary

A
  • hormones not manufactured here
  • produced in special nerve cells in the hypothalamus of the brain
  • cells have long extensions that pass through infundibulum to posterior lobe
  • hormones move down extensions and stored ready for release into bloodstream
  • release of hormone triggered by nerve impulses
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14
Q

follicle-stimulating hormone

A

ovaries: growth of follicles
testes: production of sperm

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15
Q

luteinising hormone

A

ovaries: ovulation and maintenance of corpus lutem
testes: secretion of testosterone

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16
Q

growth hormone

A

all cells: growth and protein synthesis

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17
Q

thyroid stimulating hormone

A

thyroid: secretion of hormones from thyroid

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18
Q

adrenocorticotropic hormone

A

adrenal cortex: secretion of hormones from the adrenal cortex

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19
Q

prolactin

A

mammary glands: milk production

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20
Q

antidiuretic hormone

A

kidneys: reabsorption of water

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21
Q

oxytocin

A

uterus: contractions of uterus during childbirth

mammary glands: release milk

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22
Q

the pineal gland

A
  • found deep inside brain
  • unknown role
  • secretes melatonin
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23
Q

melatonin

A

regulates sleep patterns

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24
Q

thyroid gland

A
  • located in neck
  • 2 lobes on either side of trachea joined by a narrow piece of tissue
  • thyroxine secreted (consists of iodine and amino acids)
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25
Q

thyroxine

A
  • controls body metabolism by regulating reactions in which complex molecules are synthesised from simple ones
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26
Q

the parathyroid glands

A
  • embedded in the rear surface of the lobes of the thyroid gland
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27
Q

parathyroid hormone

A
  • controls calcium and phosphate levels in the blood
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28
Q

the thymus

A
  • located in chest, just above hear and behind sternum

- secretes thymosins (influence maturation of disease-fighting cells)

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29
Q

the adrenal glands

A
  • 2 glands; one above each kidney

- each had inner adrenal medulla and an outer adrenal cortex

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30
Q

adrenal medulla

A
  • produces adrenaline and noradrenaline
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31
Q

adrenaline

A
  • prepares body for fight/fight
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32
Q

noradrenaline

A
  • increases rate/force of heartbeat
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33
Q

adrenal cortex

A
  • 20+ hormones produces
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34
Q

aldosterone

A
  • acts on kidney to reduce amount of Na and increase about of K in urine
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35
Q

cortisol

A
  • promotes normal metabolism
  • helps body withstand stress
  • repair damaged tissues
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36
Q

the pancreas

A
  • lies just below stomach/alongside duodenum
  • both exo and endocrine gland
  • exocrine part secretes digestive enzymes into the small intestine through pancreatic duct
  • islets of lagerhands are the endocrine part of pancreas
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37
Q

insulin

A
  • reduces amount of glucose in blood
  • promotes uptake of glucose in the blood by the cells of the body
  • determines by amount of sugar in the blood and is controlled through neg feedback systems
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38
Q

glucagon

A
  • increases amount of glucose in blood

- promotes breakdown of glycogen to glucose in liver

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39
Q

the gonads

A
  • testes or ovaries

- produce hormones as well as eggs/sperm

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40
Q

androgens

A
  • male sex hormones

- responsible for development/maintenance of male sex characteristics

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41
Q

oestrogens

A
  • female sex hormones
  • responsible for development/maintenance of female sec characteristics
  • regulates menstruation/pregnancy changes
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42
Q

nervous system

A
  • the communication network and control centre of the body

- involved in maintaining constant environment inside the body

43
Q

central nervous system

A
  • brain/spinal cord

- control centre for NS

44
Q

peripheral nervous system

A
  • nerves that connect CNS with receptors, muscles, glands
45
Q

nerve cells

A
  • neurons
  • basic structural and functional units of the whole nervous system
  • neurons in brain and many in spinal cord are interneurons
46
Q

interneurons

A

they have many branches that are able send or receive to or from adjacent neurons

47
Q

dendrites

A
  • fine short extensions of cytoplasm

- carry messages into the cell body

48
Q

axon

A
  • single, long extensions

- carry message away from the cell body

49
Q

myelin sheath

A
  • a white fatty sheath that surrounds some nerve fibres
50
Q

nerve fibre

A
  • any long extension of a nerve cell
51
Q

grey matter

A
  • consists of nerve cell bodies and unmyelinated fibres
52
Q

white matter

A
  • myelinated fibres
53
Q

schwann cells

A
  • a cell that wraps around a nerve fibre, forming the myelin sheath
54
Q

nodes or ranvier

A
  • a gap in the myelin sheath or a nerve fibre
55
Q

functions of sheath

A
  • acts as insulator
  • protects the axon from damage
  • speeds up the movement or nerve impulses
56
Q

sensory (receptor)

A
  • carry messages from receptors in the sense organs, or in the skin to the CNS
57
Q

motor (effector)

A
  • carry messages from CNS to muscles and glands
58
Q

multipolar

A
  • have 1 axon
  • multiple dendrites extending from cell body
  • most common
  • most interneurons and motor
59
Q

bipolar

A
  • have 1 axon
  • have 1 dendrite
  • both may have extensions at their ends
  • eye, ear, nose (impulses taken from receptor cells to other neurons)
60
Q

unipolar

A
  • 1 extension; axon
  • cell body to one side of axon
  • most sensory neurons that carry messages to spinal cord
61
Q

synapses

A
  • junction between the branches of adjacent neurons

- occur because axon or one nerve and dendrite of other

62
Q

nerve impulses

A
  • nerve impulse is an electrochemical change that travels along a nerve fibre
  • speed depends on myelinated/unmyelinated and diameter of fibre
63
Q

nerve impulses: action potential

A
  1. slow depolarisation of the membrane brings the potential to threshold
  2. sodium channels in the membrane open; sodium ions flood into the cell; membrane becomes depolarised; membrane voltage rises
  3. sodium channels close and membrane becomes repolarised
  4. membrane returns to resting state
  5. refractory period; brief time afterwards, the part of the nerve fibre cannot be stimulated to respond again
64
Q

conduction along unmyelinated fibres

A
  • depolarisation of one area of the membrane causes a local current flow between neighbouring areas on the membrane
  • current flow causes depolarisation immediately adjacent to the site of original stimulus
  • repairs so action potential moves away from point of stimulus
  • refractory period prevents stimulus from travelling backward
65
Q

transmission along myelinated fibres

A
  • nerve cells insulated from extracellular fluid except at the nods of ranvier
  • ions can’t flow in/out and action potential can’t be formed
  • action potential jumpers from one nod of ranvier to another
66
Q

transmission across synapse

A
  • neurotransmitters released at end of axon and diffuse across gap and attach to receptors on the membrane of the next
  • only from axon to dendrite or axon to cell body
67
Q

Divisions of NS

A
  • pns consists of nerve fibres which carry info to and from cns and groups of nerve cell bodies (ganglia) which lie outside the brain and spinal cord
  • 12 pairs of nerves arise from brain; cranial; mixed
  • 31 pairs of nerves arise from spinal cord; mixed and joined to spinal cord by 2 roots
68
Q

ventral root

A
  • contains axons of motor neutrons that have their cell bodies in the grey matter of spinal cord
69
Q

dorsal root

A
  • contains the axons of sensory neurons that have their cell bodies in a small swelling on the dorsal root (dorsal root ganglion)
70
Q

effectors

autonomic vs somatic

A

auto: heart muscle, involuntary muscle, glands
som: skeletal (voluntary) muscle

71
Q

general function

autonomic vs somatic

A

auto: adjustment of the internal environment
som: response to the external environment

72
Q

neurotransmitter at effector

autonomic vs somatic

A

auto: acetylcholine or noradrenaline
som: acetylcholine

73
Q

efferent (outward) pathway

autonomic vs somatic

A

auto: two nerve fibres from CNS tot he effector with a synapse in a ganglion
som: one nerve fibre from the CNS to the effector; no synapse and no ganglion

74
Q

control

autonomic vs somatic

A

auto: involuntary (automatic)
som: voluntary (senses)

75
Q

effect on target organ

autonomic vs somatic

A

auto: 2 sets (sympathetic/parasympathetic)
som: 1 set

76
Q

nature of message

NS vs ES

A

N: electrical impulses and neurotransmitters
E: hormones

77
Q

transport of message

NS vs ES

A

N: along membrane of neurons
E: by the blood stream

78
Q

cells affected

NS vs ES

A

N: muscle and gland cells; other neurons
E: all body cells

79
Q

type of response

NS vs ES

A

N: local and specific
E: may be very general and widespread

80
Q

time takes to respond

NS vs ES

A

N: rapid
E: slower

81
Q

duration of response

NS vs ES

A

N: brief; stops when stimulus stops
E: long lasting; may continue long after stimulus has stopped

82
Q

protection of CNS

A
  • bone
  • membrane (meniges)
  • cerebrospinal fluid
83
Q

3 layers of connective tissue forming membranes around CNS

A
  • outer layer: tough/fibrous
  • middle layer: loose mesh of fibres
  • inner layer: much more delicate
84
Q

cerebrospinal fluid

A
  • occupies space between middle and inner layers or meniges
  • circulates through cavities
  • clear, watery
  • acts as shock absorber
  • supports the brain (floats)
  • circulates nutrients to cells of brain
85
Q

the cerebrum

A
  • biggest part
  • outer surface
  • below is white matter
    longitudinal fold
    convolutions
    sulci
86
Q

longitudinal fold

A

a deep cleft that almost separates the cerebrum into two halves

87
Q

convolutions

A

folds of the surface of the cerebrum

88
Q

sulci

A

shallow downloads of the surface of the cerebrum

89
Q

functions of cerebrum

A
  • thinking, reasoning, learning, memory, attention, responsibility
90
Q

functional areas of brain

A

sensory - interpret impulses from receptor
motor - control muscular movement
association - concerned with intellectual/emotional responses

91
Q

sensory areas

A
  • receive and process nerve impulses from sense
92
Q

motor areas

A
  • send impulses to muscles (voluntary)
93
Q

association areas

A
  • interpret information from senses and make it useful
94
Q

the corpus callosum

A
  • wide band of nerve fibres that lie under cerebrum

- allow two halves to communicate

95
Q

cerebellum

A
  • posture, balance, fine coordination
  • receives sensory info from inner ear and stretch receptors in skeletal muscles
  • take place below conscious level
96
Q

hypothalamus

A
  • homeostasis

- regulation of heart, digestive system, appetite, thirst, metabolism, body temp, response to fear/anger

97
Q

medulla oblongata

A
  • regulates the hear (cardiac centre)
  • regulates breathing (respiratory centre)
  • regulates diameter of blood vessels (vasometre)
98
Q

spinal cord

A
  • pathway for communication between muscles and glands and brain
  • integration of automatic/protective reflex
    ascending; sensory axons; messages up towards brain
    descending; motor axons; messages down away from brain
99
Q

receptors

A
  • a structure that is able to detect a change in the body’s internal or external environment
  • some of a particular type are grouped together in a sense organ eg. light in eye
  • others are simple nerve endings and may be spread through parts of the body/whole body e.g. pain/temp receptors in the skin
100
Q

thermoreceptors

A
  • able to respond to heat/cold
  • inform brain of temp changed outside body
  • info received by the hypothalamus and cerebrum so continually aware of changes
  • skin thermoreceptors are nerve endings that are sensitive to cold or hot but not both
  • temp inside body is monitored by thermoreceptors in the hypothalamus; detect temp of the blood through the brain
101
Q

osmoreceptors

A
  • osmotic pressure; is determined by the concentration of substances dissolved in the water of the blood plasma
  • located in the hypothalamus and are sensitive to osmotic pressure
  • respond to small changes in OP and are able to stimulate the hypothalamus so that the body’s water content is maintained within very narrow limits
102
Q

chemoreceptors

A
  • stimulated by particular chemicals
  • present in nose and mouth
  • internal chemoreceptors are sensitive to body fluids
  • important because sensitive to pH and O and CO2 conc
  • involved in regulation of the heartbeat and breathing
103
Q

touch receptors

A
  • mainly in the skin
  • some close to the surface
  • these occur in greater conc. in lips, fingertips, eyelids, external genital organs
  • nerve endings also associated with the base of each hair follicle
  • respond to light touch
  • adapt rapidly - after short period of time we are no longer aware of the touch

Human Biology (6 decks)

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