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Em Year 1 Biomed, Semester 1 > Nervous System 2 > Flashcards

Nervous System 2 Flashcards

1
Q

The Central Nervous System (CNS) is formed of 2 main components. What are they?

A

The brain and spinal cord

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2
Q

Why is the cranium important?

A

It provides physical protection for the brain

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3
Q

The spinal cord is an extension of the brain. True or false?

A

True

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4
Q

What is the name of the bony framework that protects the spine?

A

Vertebral column

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5
Q

What are meninges?

A

Layers of tissue / membranes that cover the brain and spinal cord.

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6
Q

List 4 things that the brain is protected by.

A
  1. The cranium
  2. The meninges
  3. Cerebro-spinal fluid (CSF)
  4. The blood-brain barrier (BBB)
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7
Q

What type of tissue are the meninges made up of?

A

Connective tissue

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8
Q

List the 3 layers of tissue that form the meninges.

A
  1. Dura Mater (tough outer layer)
  2. Arachnoid Mater
  3. Pia Mater
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9
Q

Describe the dura mater (“tough mother’).

A
  • The tough outer layer of the meninges. - - - There for protection and support.
  • Divides into 2 layers in the brain
  • Attaches to the periosteum (top) and sacrum (bottom).
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10
Q

At which vertebral level do the meninges stop / attach?

A

S2 level

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11
Q

Which layer of the meninges divides into 2 layers in the brain to create venous sinuses (aka the bridging veins)?

A

The Dura Mater

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12
Q

What is the role of the venous sinuses in the dura mater of the meninges?

A

They allow blood to drain out of the brain into the jugular veins.

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13
Q

What is the arachnoid mater made up of?

A

Collagen and elastin fibres

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14
Q

Which is the most delicate membrane of the meninges, and wraps around the contours of the brain like cling film?

A

The Pia Mater

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15
Q

Which thin, transparent layer of the meninges contains blood vessels that supply the spinal cord?

A

The Pia Mater

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16
Q

What is the subdural space between the arachnoid mater and dura mater (meninges) filled with?

A

Interstitial fluid

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17
Q

What is the sub-arachnoid space between the arachnoid mater and pia mater (meninges) filled with?

A

Cerebrospinal fluid

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18
Q

What is the sub-arachnoid space?

A

The space between the arachnoid mater and pia mater layers of the meninges, which is filled with cerebrospinal fluid.

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19
Q

What is a subdural haematoma?

A

A slow-developing venous bleed in the subdural space of the meninges around the brain.

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20
Q

What is a subarachnoid haemorrhage?

A

An arterial bleed (rapidly developing) in the sub-arachnoid space of the meninges around the brain.

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21
Q

If a patient feels trauma in the back of the head (like suddenly being punched or hit with a baseball bat, or a ‘thunderclap headache’) what pathology might they be experiencing / have experienced?

A

A sub-arachnoid haemmorhage

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22
Q

A subdural haematoma is more likely to happen in a patient that has dementia, specifically Alzheimers disease. Why is this?

A

Because Alzheimers Disease causes gradual brain shrinkage, creating more and more tension through the dura mater.

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23
Q

What is usually the cause of a subarachnoid haemorrhage?

A

The rupturing of a brain aneurysm (usually a berry aneurism).

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24
Q

What is cerebrospinal fluid?

A
  • A clear liquid that protects the brain and spinal cord from mechanical and immunological trauma.
  • It also nourishes the brain and spinal cord by delivering lots of nutrients to them.
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25
Q

What colour and consistency is cerebrospinal fluid?

A

CSF is colourless and quite gloopy

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26
Q

What is CSF made of?

A

Cerebrospinal fluid is made from filtered blood, and is mostly water with ions and glucose.

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27
Q

List 3 places where you would find cerebrospinal fluid.

A
  1. In the subarachnoid space between the arachnoid mater and pia mater (in the meninges).
  2. In the ventricles (cavities) in the brain.
  3. In the central canal of the spinal cord.
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28
Q

Which type of cells produce cerebrospinal fluid?

A

Ependymal cells (ciliated glial cells)

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29
Q

How much CSF do ependymal cells produce per day?

A

Around 500mls (more than the brain and spinal cord can actually contain, so large amounts are gradually reabsorbed back into the blood)

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30
Q

List 4 functions of cerebrospinal fluid.

A
  1. Support & protection of the brain and spinal cord, acting as a shock absorber.
  2. Maintains uniform pressure around the brain.
  3. Circulates nutrients and waste
  4. Keeps brain and spinal cord moist.
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31
Q

What is hydrocephalus?

A

Too much CSF accumulated around the brain.

Often due to compromised ability to reabsorb excess CSF

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32
Q

List 3 nutrients found in CSF.

A

Water, glucose, ions (i.e, sodium and potassium)

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33
Q

What is the choroid plexi?

A

A cluster of ependymal cells and capillaries that produce CSF.

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34
Q

Blood flows to the brain from the ______ and _______ arteries.

A

Vertebral and Carotid arteries

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35
Q

Where would you find the carotid arteries and how many are there?

A

2, in the front of the neck

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36
Q

Where would you find the vertebral arteries and how many are there?

A

2, in the back of the neck

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37
Q

What percentage of the body’s oxygen and glucose does the brain use at rest?

A

20%

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38
Q

What is the blood brain barrier (BBB)?

A

A physical barrier against the movement of substances from the blood into the brain.

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39
Q

Which cells maintain / provide the blood brain barrier?

A

Astrocytes (star-shaped)

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40
Q

What is the role of the blood brain barrier?

A

The BBB protects the brain from toxins, harmful substances and bacteria

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41
Q

List 4 substances that can travel across the blood brain barrier.

A
  1. Lipid soluble substances
  2. Glucose
  3. Gases (i.e, O2 and CO2)
  4. Ions
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42
Q

List 3 things that can’t (normally) cross the blood brain barrier.

A
  1. Proteins
  2. Blood cells
  3. Some drugs
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43
Q

List 2 lipid soluble substances that can cross the blood brain barrier.

A

Alcohol, anaesthetics

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44
Q

List the 4 major parts of the brain

A
  1. Brainstem
  2. Diencephalon (‘interbrain’)
  3. Cerebrum
  4. Cerebellum (‘little brain’)
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45
Q

What is the brainstem sub-divided into?

A

3 parts:

  • Medulla Oblongata
  • Pons
  • Midbrain
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46
Q

What is the diencephalon sub-divided into?

A

3 parts:

  • Thalamus
  • Hypothalamus
  • Epithalamus
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47
Q

What is the thalamus?

A

The core of the brain

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48
Q

Where would you find the thalamus?

A

Right in the middle of the brain

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49
Q

Which area of the brain governs sensory perception and motor control/output?

A

The cerebrum

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50
Q

Why is the cerebellum important?

A

We need it for clear speech, balance, posture and regulating movements.

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51
Q

Which part of the brain is the continuation of the spinal cord?

A

The brainstem

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52
Q

What is the foramen magnum?

A

The large hole in the bottom of the skull where the spinal cord runs up and becomes the brain stem.

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53
Q

What is the first part of the brainstem (closest to the spinal cord) called?

A

The medulla oblongata

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54
Q

Which 2 key centres of the body are housed by the medulla oblongata?

A

Respiratory centre and cardiac centre

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55
Q

Which part of the brainstem regulates the heartbeat and breathing?

A

Medulla Oblongata

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56
Q

Why could damage to the medulla oblongata be fatal?

A

Because the medulla oblongata regulates heartbeat and breathing.

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57
Q

Which 3 reflexes are controlled by the medulla oblongata?

A
  1. Vomitting
  2. Hiccuping
  3. Sneezing
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58
Q

How many cranial nerves are there?

A

12

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59
Q

How many of the 12 cranial nerves come off of the medulla oblongata?

A

4

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60
Q

What is cranial nerve 10 also known as?

A

The vagus nerve

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61
Q

List 4 functions of the medulla oblongata (in the brainstem)

A
  1. Contains the respiratory and cardiac centres
  2. Controls vomiting reflex
  3. Controls sneezing and hiccuping reflex
  4. Contains 4 cranial nerves
  5. Contains motor tracts down the spinal cord, from the brain (the corticospinal tract)
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62
Q

What is the name of the motor tract that descends down the spinal cord from the brain?

A

The corticospinal tract

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63
Q

What does the pons share with the medulla in the brainstem?

A

The respiratory centre. So both the pons and the medulla help to control breathing.

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64
Q

Why is the pons known as ‘the bridge’ within the brainstem?

A

Because it bridges the gap between the main brain and the medulla oblongata (and looks bridge-shaped)

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65
Q

How many cranial nerves are found within the pons?

A

4

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66
Q

List 3 functions of the pons (in the brainstem).

A
  1. Helps to control breathing
  2. Houses 4 cranial nerves
  3. Relays motor tracts
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67
Q

Where is the midbrain found?

A

At the very top of the brainstem, above the medulla oblongata and pons.

68
Q

Which part of the brain contains the substantia nigra?

A

The midbrain, in the brainstem.

69
Q

What is the substantia nigra and where is it found?

A

A large, darkly pigmented area within the midbrain, which contains dopamine releasing neurons.

70
Q

Name the large, darkly pigmented area within the midbrain, which contains dopamine releasing neurons and is associated with Parkinsons Disease.

A

The substantia nigra

71
Q

List 4 functions of the midbrain

A
  1. Contains dopamine releasing neurons (in the substantia nigra)
  2. Control of subconscious movements
  3. Eye reflexes and tracking
  4. Houses 2 cranial nerves (for eye movement)
  5. Relaying of motor tracts
  6. Movement of the head and neck
72
Q

Name the 3 parts that make up the diencephalon area of the brain.

A
  1. Thalamus
  2. Hypothalamus
  3. Epithalamus
73
Q

Which area of the diencephalon is known as ‘the core of the brain’?

A

The thalamus.

It makes up 80% of the diencephalon.

74
Q

Why is the thalamus known as the ‘major relay centre’?

A

Because it receives information coming up through the spinal cord and brainstem, and relays it to the appropriate parts of the brain.

75
Q

Which part of the brain integrates sensory and motor information?

A

The thalamus

76
Q

Which part of the brain plays a big part in our body’s maintenance of circadian rhythm?

A

The epithalamus

77
Q

Why does the epithalamus play a large role in the maintenance of circadian rhythm and the sleep cycle?

A

Because it houses the pineal gland, which secretes melatonin.

78
Q

Which hormone is secreted from the epithalamus area of the brain?

A

Melatonin

79
Q

Which gland produces melatonin?

A

Pineal gland

80
Q

Which part of the brain, which is also a key gland, is involved in hormone regulation and homeostasis?

A

The hypothalamus

81
Q

The hypothalamus works closely with which gland?

A

The pituitary gland

82
Q

Which area of the brain controls the autonomic nervous system (ANS)?

A

The hypothalamus (which sits within the diencephalon)

83
Q

List 4 functions of the hypothalamus.

A
  1. Hormone regulation
  2. Receiving sensory information
  3. Control of the Autonomic Nervous System (ANS)
  4. Controls body temperature
  5. Regulates circadian rhythm
  6. Regulates emotional & behavioural patterns
  7. Regulates appetite / satiety
84
Q

Which part of the brain makes up just 10% of the overall brain mass, yet contains over half of the neurons in the entire brain?

A

The cerebellum

85
Q

Which small area of the brain contains around 50 billion neurons?

A

The cerebellum

86
Q

List 3 functions of the cerebellum.

A
  1. Posture and balance
  2. Coordination
  3. Correction of errors during ongoing movement (ie, learning to walk)
  4. Proprioception
87
Q

Which area of the brain plays a key part in learning to walk, balance and play an instrument?

A

The cerebellum

88
Q

Which part of the brain is heavily influenced by alcohol, leading to slurred speech, staggering and loss of balance?

A

The cerebellum

89
Q

List 3 potential causes of cerebellar damage / injury.

A
  1. Chronic alcohol abuse
  2. Coeliac Disease
  3. Thiamine (Vit B1) deficiency
90
Q

What is ataxia?

A

Loss of balance / imbalance / lack of muscle coordination.

91
Q

Cerebellar disease produces symptoms of ataxia. List 3 of these symptoms.

A
  1. Stumbling and unsteadiness
  2. Slurred speech
  3. Intention tremor (i.e, hand tremor when putting key in door)
92
Q

In which CNS pathology might you see an intention tremor?

A

Cerebellar Disease

93
Q

The cerebrum is divided into ____ ______ (left and right)

A

Two hemispheres / parts

94
Q

Which part of the cerebrum contains grey matter (i.e, is filled with cell bodies)?

A

The outer cerebral cortex

95
Q

Which part of the brain is often referred to as the ‘seat of intelligence’?

A

The cerebrum

96
Q

What is found in the inner, deeper region of the cerebrum?

A

White matter (made up of myelinated axons)

97
Q

What is the corpus callosum?

A

The structure that connects the left and right hemispheres of the cerebrum.

98
Q

What does the corpus callosum do?

A
  • Connects the left and right hemispheres of the cerebrum.

- Allows coordination of movements between the 2 sides of the body (i.e, walking)

99
Q

List the 2 main functions of the cerebrum.

A
  1. Sensory perception

2. Motor control of skeletal muscles (movement)

100
Q

The right hemisphere of the cerebrum controls the ____ side of the body, whilst the left hemisphere of the cerebrum controls the ___ side of the body.

A

Right hemisphere controls the left side.
Left hemisphere controls the right side.

(Think ‘opposites attract’)

101
Q

The ________ makes up the majority of the brain.

A

Cerebrum

102
Q

Where do the motor neuron axons that join to form the corticospinal tract, cross over?

A

In the medulla oblongata (in the brain stem)

103
Q

What does ‘decussation’ mean?

A

Crossing over.

i.e, the corticospinal tract decussates in the medulla oblongata.

104
Q

If a stroke patient presented with weakness on the left side of their body, which cerebral hemisphere was likely affected?

A

The right cerebral hemisphere (opposite side to the body symptoms)

105
Q

Each cerebral hemisphere can be further sub-divided into ____ lobes.

A

4 lobes

106
Q

Name the 4 lobes that make up each cerebral hemisphere

A
  1. Frontal
  2. Temporal
  3. Parietal
  4. Occipital
107
Q

What are the 4 lobes of the cerebral hemispheres named after?

A

The bones that cover them.

Frontal, Temporal, Parietal, Occipital

108
Q

The frontal lobe of the cerebrum is involved in ______ _______

A

Motor skills

109
Q

The temporal lobe of the cerebrum is involved in ______

A

Hearing

110
Q

The parietal lobe of the cerebrum is involved in ______ , and contains the ______ _______.

A

Sensation

Contains the sensory cortex

111
Q

The occipital lobe of the cerebrum is involved in ______

A

Vision

112
Q

What is the limbic system?

A

The area of the brain that is active with different emotions.

113
Q

List 3 key structures within the limbic system.

A
  1. Amygdala
  2. Hippocampus
  3. Hypothalamus
114
Q

The brain receives around ____% of the cardiac output of blood (the same as the kidneys).

A

20%

115
Q

Why does the brain need a constant supply of blood?

A

Because it has a very limited ability to store oxygen and glucose.

116
Q

Why is cardiovascular health important for brain health?

A

Because the cardiovascular system supplies the brain with blood and nutrients

117
Q

Name the 4 arteries that supply blood to the brain.

A

2 x vertebral arteries

2 x carotid arteries

118
Q

What is the ‘Circle of Willis’?

A

A circle of arteries within the brain, where the carotid and vertebral arteries meet.

119
Q

Where would you find the ‘Circle of Willis’?

A

Right in the middle of the brain.

120
Q

If a berry aneurysm was to rupture, this would result in a ___ _______ haemorrhage.

A

Sub arachnoid haemmorhage

121
Q

Name a part of the brain where it is common for berry aneurysms to develop.

A

In the Circle of Willis (where the vertebral and carotid arteries meet)

122
Q

Say the mnemonic for remembering cranial nerves 1 - 12

A

On Occasion Our Trusty Truck Acts Funny. Very Good Vehicle Any How.

(OOOTTAFVGVAH)

123
Q

Say the mnemonic for remembering the sensory or motor (or both) function of each of the 12 cranial nerves

A

Some Say Marry Money. But My Brother Says Big Brains Matter More.

(SSMMBMBSBBMM)

124
Q

Which cranial nerve is involved in sense of smell?

A

Olfactory nerve (1)

125
Q

Which cranial nerve is involved in vision / sight.

A

Optic nerve (2)

126
Q

Which cranial nerve is involved in eye movements, eyelid opening and pupil size?

A

Oculomotor (3)

127
Q

Cranial nerve 4, the trochlear nerve is involved in what?

A

Eye movements

128
Q

There are 4 cranial nerves involved with the eyes. Only 1 of these is purely sensory, the others are motor. Which is the sensory nerve?

A

The optic nerve (2)

129
Q

Which of the cranial nerves is associated with facial sensations and chewing?

A

Trigeminal nerve (5)

130
Q

Which cranial nerve is responsible for eye movement (specifically abduction of the eye)?

A

Abducens (6)

131
Q

Which cranial nerve supplies masseter and temporalis (the muscles of mastication)?

A

Trigeminal nerve (5)

132
Q

Which cranial nerve is involved in facial expression?

A

Facial nerve (7)

133
Q

Which cranial nerve is involved in salivary glands and taste?

A

Facial nerve (7)

134
Q

Which cranial nerve is damaged in Bells Palsy, creating unilateral paralysis of the face?

A

Facial nerve (7)

135
Q

Which pathology is associated with damage to cranial nerve 7, the facial nerve?

A

Bell’s Palsy

136
Q

Which cranial nerve is involved in hearing and balance?

A

Vestibulocochlear nerve (8)

137
Q

Which cranial nerve is involved in taste, swallowing and tongue sensations?

A

Glossopharyngeal nerve (9)

138
Q

Which cranial nerve is the big nerve in the parasympathetic nervous system, helping to reduce blood pressure, reduce heart rate and increase the motility of the digestive tract?

A

Vagus nerve (10)

139
Q

List 4 functions of the vagus nerve (cranial nerve 10).

A
  1. Reduce blood pressure
  2. Reduce heart rate
  3. Increase digestive motility
  4. Receives sensory information from the thorax and abdomen
140
Q

Which of the cranial nerves is involved in neck and shoulder movement?

A

Accessory nerve (11)

141
Q

What does cranial nerve 12, the hypoglossal nerve do?

A

Innervates muscles for tongue movement and speech

142
Q

Why is the optic nerve densely myelinated?

A

So that vision / what we see keeps up with what we’re actually looking at.

143
Q

Name a cranial nerve that is unmyelinated

A

Olfactory nerve (1)

144
Q

Which 3 cranial nerves move the eyeball?

A

Oculomotor, Trochlear, Abducens

145
Q

Name the bony framework that protects the spinal cord.

A

The spinal column

146
Q

The _____ _____ begins at the foramen magnum and terminates at the level of L2

A

Spinal cord

147
Q

What is the cauda equina (‘horses tail’)?

A

Spinal nerves that continue downwards past the level of L2 (where the spinal cord terminates - also known as the conus)

148
Q

What is the conus?

A

The point at which the spinal cord terminates (L2 - lumbar spine)

149
Q

The spinal cord consists of _____ matter around a core of _____ matter.

A

White matter around a core of grey matter.

150
Q

The motor (descending) and sensory (ascending) tracts exist within the outer _____ matter of the spinal cord.

A

White matter

151
Q

The posterior (dorsal) horn, and anterior (ventral) horn receive and integrate incoming and outgoing information. They are found within the inner ______ matter of the spinal cord.

A

Grey matter

152
Q

What is the role of the posterior (dorsal) horn within the spinal cord?

A

It receives sensory impulses.

153
Q

What is the role of the anterior (ventral) horn within the spinal cord?

A

It sends out motor impulses in response to sensory information.

154
Q

Sensory impulses go into the back (posterior) of the spinal cord, whilst motor impulses are sent out the front (anterior) of the spinal cord. True or false?

A

True

155
Q

What are the spinal tracts?

A

Bundles of myelinated axons running up and down the spinal cord.
There are 2 sensory tracts and 1 motor tract.

156
Q

How many spinal cord tracts are there?

A

3

157
Q

Name the 3 spinal cord tracts.

A
  1. Dorsal columns (ascending, sensory)
  2. Spinothalamic tract (ascending, sensory)
  3. Corticospinal tract (motor)
158
Q

Name the 2 ascending, sensory spinal cord tracts.

A

Dorsal columns and spinothalamic tract

159
Q

Which sensory spinal cord tract carries the signals for light touch, vibration and proprioception?

A

Dorsal columns

160
Q

Which sensory spinal cord tract carries the signals for pain and temperature?

A

Spinothalamic tract

161
Q

Which motor spinal cord tract carries the signals for voluntary movements?

A

Corticospinal tract

162
Q

What is a reflex?

A

A fast, automatic, unplanned response to a stimulus.

e.g pulling hand away from a source of heat.

163
Q

Most reflexes are a spinal reflex (don’t even go up to the brain). True or false?

A

True

164
Q

Briefly describe the 5-stage sequence of a reflex arc.

A

Sensory receptor -> sensory neuron -> integrating centre (interneuron) -> motor neuron -> effector organ

165
Q

What is each spinal nerve named after?

A

The level of the corresponding vertebrae (i.e, C1, C2 etc)

166
Q

What are the vertebral foramina?

A

Small holes in the vertebrae through which the spinal nerves exit the vertebral column.

167
Q

What is the name given to the small holes in the vertebrae through which the spinal nerves exit the vertebral column.

A

Vertebral foramina

Em Year 1 Biomed, Semester 1 (16 decks)

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