Motivation Flashcards
Brief note on motivation, sources and incentives of motivation
Motivation is a condition that energizes a certain behavior and gives it direction.
Sources of motivation are :
-Internal drive factors
-External incentive factors
Incentives of Motivation are :
-Primary reinforcers are able to act as rewards independently of prior experience it is characterized as natural and neutral
-Secondary reinforcers are able to act as rewards at least partly through learning about their relationship between events
it is characterized as conditioned
Brief note on Drive Theory/Push theory/Drive Reduction Theory and it’s perspective on rise of motivation
According to the theory needs creates an unpleasant state of arousal or tension called a drive, which impels the organism to engage in behavior that will satisfy the need and reduce the tension.
1) A need, in our definition, is some internal state that makes certain outcomes appear attractive.
2) An unsatisfied need creates tension that stimulates drives within an individual.
3) These drives generate a search behavior to satisfy the need and reduce the tension.
4) To relieve this tension, they exert effort. (The greater the tension, the higher the effort level)
Inherent in our definition of motivation is the requirement that the individual’s needs be compatible and consistent with the organization’s goals.
This theory was popularized by Clark Hull, who believed that all living organisms have certain biological needs that are required to be satisfied. Homeostasis(The tendency of the body to maintain a balanced internal state ) is a large influence on the Drive reduction theory.
Brief note on Biological Motivation
The biological motivation is centered around the process of Homeostasis that attempts to maintain the equilibrium in the internal state of the body. This involves :
Set point: value homeostasis tries to maintain
Sensory signal : measurement of internal state
Comparison : identifying offset between the set point and sensory signal
Response : Drive created to reduce the difference between the set point and sensory signal.
The various drives and Homeostasis:
1) Body temperature is maintained through various physiological and psychological responses (Neurons in various parts of the brain(especially the hypothalamus)detect temperature changes & trigger physiological responses & sensations that lead to behavioral solutions)
2)Thirst : Categorized based on the two kinds of fluid reservoirs in the body, Extracellular and Intracellular reservoirs.
-Loss of extracellular fluid detected by blood pressure sensors, neurons in major veins & organs that respond to drop in pressure
-Loss of intracellular fluid detected by osmotic sensors, neurons in the hypothalamus that respond to dehydration
Brief note on incentive theories(Pull theories)
This theory emphasizes on the motivational role of external events/stimulus/objects, these stimuli characteristics start a chain of behaviors. The goal itself arouses whereas the Incentives are the objects of motivation
They utilize both primary and secondary reinforcers
Incentives are of two types, Positive and Negative incentives.
Model of basic motives is a model that centers Incentive motivation. It states
[Physiological needs => Drive signals ] (OR) [External Stimulus=> Learning ] both of which lead to Incentive motivation which leads to conscious desires, behavioral attraction and conscious pleasures.
Brief note on Arousal theory and Yerkes - Dodson Law
A theory suggesting that the aim of motivation is to maintain an optimal level of arousal.
Arousal as per the theory is a state of alertness and mental and physical activation.
An unideal Arousal level can lead to the following:
-When arousal is too low, Organisms seek to increase stimulation
-When arousal is too high, Organisms seek to decrease stimulation
Yerkes-Dodson law
Performance on tasks(Performance is correlated to efficiency of memory) is best when the arousal level is appropriate to the difficulty of the task. The optimal levels of arousal for different difficulties of tasks are:
-Higher arousal for simple tasks
-Moderate arousal for tasks of moderate
difficulty
-Lower arousal for complex tasks
Performance suffers when arousal level is either too high or too low for the task
Brief note on Incentive Motivation and Reward and refer to ‘Drug addiction and rewards’
Incentive motivation is defined as a motivation directs behavior towards particular incentive that produces pleasure or alleviates unpleasant state.
Wanting something associated with affect (full range of consciously experienced pleasure & displeasure)
Most incentives need to be learned
incentive salience: objects/events been linked to anticipated pleasurable affect
Wanting: anticipation of pleasure
(Dopamine system in the brain appears to underlie experience)
Liking: pleasure experienced in the moment
-Drug Addiction and reward
Addiction is a powerful motivation for some people
Drug addiction occurs when patterns of compulsive & destructive drug-taking behavior emerge
Psychoactive drug addiction is hard to overcome because of drug tolerance effects, withdrawal symptoms & neural sensitization can be permanent.
-Tolerance: drug taken again and again , the
pleasure system that it activates my become
increasingly resistance to activation in an
effort to regain their balanced state.
-Withdrawal: An intensely aversive reaction to
the cessation of drug use.
-Neural sensitization: dopamine neurons will
be activated more highly by drugs and drug
related stimuli.
Brief note on Hunger
Hunger is more complex than thirst, because we need to eat a balance of foods to be healthy especially since we have both basic taste preferences that are inborn & mechanisms for learning preference & aversion.
Interactions between homeostasis & incentives
Homeostasis is the dominant operating principle in control of hunger. Oral stimulation & learning are both important parts of the interaction between physiological hunger signals & incentive stimuli of eating.
Example; Miller and Kessens experiment (1952) –Rats experiment
-Physiological hunger cues
-Related to glucose levels & other nutrients in the body
-Neurons in the brain (especially brain stem &
hypothalamus) sensitive to glucose levels
Peripheral signals: nutrient signals in the liver,
stomach & intestines trigger satiety to the
brain
-Integration of hunger cues
-Signals from hunger receptors in the brain &
satiety signals from liver & stomach
integrated in brain stem to detect overall need
Integration of hunger cues
Hypothalamus – two key areas related to hunger
Lateral hypothalamus – destruction leads to
undereating
Ventromedial hypothalamus – destruction
leads to overeating
The idea that the two parts of the hypothalamus “hunger Centre” too simplistic
Research on lesions in the lateral and ventromedial hypothalamus suggests this more complex
Discuss about Eating disorders
Obesity: 30% or more above ideal body weight
Mainly caused by genetic predisposition or overeating for psychological reasons
Genetic factors: obesity more likely in families where one or more parents obese
Twin studies: research suggests identical twins gain weight in same way
Research suggests that genes affect number & size of fat cells, metabolic rate & set points
Anorexia & bulimia : these disorders involve pathological desire not to gain weight & mostly affect women
Anorexia nervosa: characterized by extreme, self-imposed weight loss
Bulimia: characterized by recurrent binge eating followed by purging excess through vomiting, laxatives, fasting, or excessive exercise
Variety of causes for these disorders, including social, biological, and/or family factors
-Socio-cultural factors
Emphasis on thinness in women in some cultures (e.g., France, USA) and their media & products
Objectification theory: claims that self-objectification (concerned more with how others see us than how we feel) causes range of psychological & emotional reactions – self-consciousness, increased anxiety & shame, & diminished positive emotions & sexual pleasure
-Biological factors
Biological vulnerabilities may increase tendency to develop eating disorder, e.g., malfunction of hypothalamus (anorexia) or deficiency in neurotransmitter serotonin or executive functioning (bulimia)
-Familial factors
Many young women with eating disorders come from families that demand “perfection” & extreme self-control but do not allow expressions of warmth & conflict
