Motivated Self

Question 1

Self-serving biases:

A: Cognitive or perceptual processes that are distorted by the need to maintain and enhance self-esteem or the tendency to perceive oneself in an overly favorable manner.

B: Cognitive or perceptual processes that lead individuals to take personal responsibility for failures while attributing successes to external factors, resulting in a consistently negative self-view.

C: Cognitive or perceptual processes that are aimed at maintaining a realistic and balanced view of oneself, avoiding any tendency to perceive oneself as overly favorable or overly critical, and focusing instead on objective self-assessment.

Answer 1

A: Cognitive or perceptual processes that are distorted by the need to maintain and enhance self-esteem or the tendency to perceive oneself in an overly favorable manner.

Self-serving biases can serve to protect self-esteem and reduce feelings of vulnerability and uncertainty. However, they can also lead to distorted thinking, poor decision-making, and conflicts in interpersonal relationships. Recognizing and addressing these biases can help individuals gain a more balanced and realistic perspective.

Question 2

What are the two mechanisms involved in biased answers?

A: Cognitive & Motivational

B: Emotional & Rational

C: Social & Environmental

Answer 2

A: Cognitive & Motivational

Question 3

Why do we give responses that are biased
to be more favorable about ourselves?

A: We give biased answers due to cognitive mechanisms like receiving little negative feedback, having more insight into our own good intentions, and relying on biased samples from friends. Our memory also favors recalling our positive actions more easily than others’ positive actions, leading to skewed self-perceptions. Motivational mechanisms behind biased answers include unconscious self-protective behaviors, maintaining unreasonably high self-esteem, and defining comparison standards based on our own qualities, using ourselves as the benchmark for traits like being a “good friend.”

B: We give biased answers because we lack the ability to objectively assess our own behavior, relying solely on external opinions to shape our self-perception. This leads to an overemphasis on negative feedback and a tendency to undervalue our positive traits, resulting in consistently low self-esteem and self-perception.

C: We give biased answers because social norms dictate that we present ourselves in a negative light to avoid appearing arrogant. This societal pressure leads us to focus more on our shortcomings and failures, downplaying our achievements and positive qualities to conform to expected modesty and humility.

Answer 3

A: We give biased answers due to cognitive mechanisms like receiving little negative feedback, having more insight into our own good intentions, and relying on biased samples from friends. Our memory also favors recalling our positive actions more easily than others’ positive actions, leading to skewed self-perceptions. Motivational mechanisms behind biased answers include unconscious self-protective behaviors, maintaining unreasonably high self-esteem, and defining comparison standards based on our own qualities, using ourselves as the benchmark for traits like being a “good friend.”

Question 4

STUDY: David Dunning’s research on Change of Standards/Construal:

A: Participants were given true feedback indicating they excelled at traits they valued. When later asked to rate what makes a “good friend,” those who received positive feedback on certain traits raised the importance of those traits, demonstrating that we adjust our standards to maintain a realistic self-image.

B: Participants were given false feedback indicating they were average at traits they valued. When later asked to rate what makes a “good friend,” those who received neutral feedback on certain traits ignored those traits entirely, demonstrating that we dismiss irrelevant traits to maintain a balanced self-image.

C: Participants were given false feedback indicating they weren’t good at traits they valued. When later asked to rate what makes a “good friend,” those who received negative feedback on certain traits lowered the importance of those traits, demonstrating that we adjust our standards to maintain a positive self-image.

Answer 4

C: Participants were given false feedback indicating they weren’t good at traits they valued. When later asked to rate what makes a “good friend,” those who received negative feedback on certain traits lowered the importance of those traits, demonstrating that we adjust our standards to maintain a positive self-image.

Question 5

STUDY: Self-Serving Biases (Ross & Sicoly, 1979):

A: Married couples rated their and their spouse’s responsibility for 20 household tasks, typically seeing their spouse as more responsible for 16 out of 20 tasks. This bias is explained by motivational factors, as individuals want to appear modest and humble in their contributions.

B: Married couples rated their and their spouse’s responsibility for 20 household tasks, typically seeing themselves as more responsible for 16 out of 20 tasks. This bias is explained by cognitive factors, not motivational: individuals have a better memory for their own actions than their partner’s, leading to an inflated sense of their own contributions.

C: Married couples rated their and their spouse’s responsibility for 20 household tasks, typically seeing themselves and their spouse as equally responsible for all tasks. This bias is explained by the desire to maintain harmony and avoid conflict in the relationship, leading to an equal distribution of perceived responsibility.

Answer 5

B: Married couples rated their and their spouse’s responsibility for 20 household tasks, typically seeing themselves as more responsible for 16 out of 20 tasks. This bias is explained by cognitive factors, not motivational: individuals have a better memory for their own actions than their partner’s, leading to an inflated sense of their own contributions.

Question 6

STUDY: Self-serving bias (Epley & Whitchurch, 2008):

A: Participants were shown morphed photos of themselves combined with images of more and less competent-looking people. When asked to identify their own photo, most chose a photo that was 80% them and 20% the more competent-looking face, illustrating a self-serving bias. This mild positive illusion shows our desire to see ourselves as more capable than we are, driven by a need for self-esteem and confidence.

B: Participants were shown morphed photos of themselves combined with images of more and less successful-looking people. When asked to identify their own photo, most chose a photo that was 80% them and 20% the more successful-looking face, illustrating a self-serving bias. This mild positive illusion shows our desire to see ourselves as more successful than we are, driven by a need for social status and the belief that others value success.

C: Participants were shown morphed photos of themselves combined with images of more and less attractive people. When asked to identify their own photo, most chose a photo that was 80% them and 20% the more attractive face illustrating a self-serving bias. This mild positive illusion shows our desire to see ourselves as better than we are, driven by a need for social acceptance and the belief that others value attractiveness.

Answer 6

C: Participants were shown morphed photos of themselves combined with images of more and less attractive people. When asked to identify their own photo, most chose a photo that was 80% them and 20% the more attractive face illustrating a self-serving bias. This mild positive illusion shows our desire to see ourselves as better than we are, driven by a need for social acceptance and the belief that others value attractiveness.

Question 7

What is self-esteem?

A: Self-esteem refers to the extent to which we see ourselves as superior to others, focusing on our abilities and achievements. It is primarily based on comparisons with others and is driven by the desire to outperform peers, often leading to competitive behavior.

B: Self-esteem refers to the degree to which we accurately assess our strengths and weaknesses, maintaining a balanced and objective view of ourselves. It is characterized by a realistic self-perception and is driven by the desire to understand and accept our true selves.

C: Self-esteem refers to the extent to which we regard ourselves with respect and how we feel about ourselves. Unique to humans, the self both esteems and is esteemed. We are highly motivated to have high self-esteem, which can be very biased but also provides strong motivational benefits.

Answer 7

C: Self-esteem refers to the extent to which we regard ourselves with respect and how we feel about ourselves. Unique to humans, the self both esteems and is esteemed. We are highly motivated to have high self-esteem, which can be very biased but also provides strong motivational benefits.

Question 8

What does self-esteem do for us?

A: We are inherently designed to care deeply about others’ opinions of us and to maintain a positive self-image. Self-esteem exists to help us manage and overcome difficult experiences.

B: Self-esteem primarily serves to make us more competitive, driving us to outperform others in various aspects of life. High self-esteem ensures that we consistently strive to be better than those around us, fostering a sense of superiority.

C: Self-esteem works to keep us grounded and realistic, ensuring that we have an accurate perception of our strengths and weaknesses. It prevents us from developing inflated egos and helps us remain humble and self-aware.

Answer 8

A: We are inherently designed to care deeply about others’ opinions of us and to maintain a positive self-image. Self-esteem exists to help us manage and overcome difficult experiences.

Question 9

Sociometer hypothesis (Mark Leary):

A: Proposes that self-esteem is entirely independent of social interactions and is determined solely by one’s internal sense of self-worth. It suggests that self-esteem is a personal construct that does not fluctuate based on external feedback or societal standards.

B: Suggests that self-esteem acts as a gauge measuring how esteemed we believe we are in the eyes of others (Sartre). It reflects our estimate of whether we meet societal standards and are likely to be accepted. This gauge, influenced by the concept of the “generalized other,” helps us assess our social status and guides behaviors to increase acceptance and ensure survival, an evolutionary imperative.

C: Proposes that self-esteem fluctuates randomly and is not linked to social acceptance or personal achievements. It suggests that self-esteem levels are determined by genetic factors and remain constant regardless of one’s interactions or social standing.

Answer 9

B: Suggests that self-esteem acts as a gauge measuring how esteemed we believe we are in the eyes of others (Sartre). It reflects our estimate of whether we meet societal standards and are likely to be accepted. This gauge, influenced by the concept of the “generalized other,” helps us assess our social status and guides behaviors to increase acceptance and ensure survival, an evolutionary imperative.

Question 10

STUDY: Self-Esteem - Brown & Dutton (1995):

A: Participants completed a task and received either positive or negative feedback to test the impact on their ego. The results showed that while both low and high self-esteem individuals felt equally good after positive feedback, those with low self-esteem felt significantly worse after negative feedback. This suggests that people with low self-esteem are more vulnerable to negative feedback, affecting their emotional well-being more severely than those with high self-esteem.

B: Participants completed a task and received only positive feedback to test the impact on their ego. The results showed that individuals with low self-esteem felt significantly better than those with high self-esteem after positive feedback, indicating that positive feedback disproportionately benefits those with lower self-esteem.

C: Participants completed a task and received either neutral or negative feedback to test the impact on their ego. The results showed that individuals with low self-esteem felt significantly better after negative feedback compared to those with high self-esteem, suggesting that people with low self-esteem are less affected by negative feedback and are more resilient in maintaining their emotional well-being.

Answer 10

A: Participants completed a task and received either positive or negative feedback to test the impact on their ego. The results showed that while both low and high self-esteem individuals felt equally good after positive feedback, those with low self-esteem felt significantly worse after negative feedback. This suggests that people with low self-esteem are more vulnerable to negative feedback, affecting their emotional well-being more severely than those with high self-esteem.

Question 11

Why do high self-esteem folks feel better than low self-esteem folks after failure?

A: HSE folks are more defensive

B: LSE folks are always in a negative
mood

C: HSE folks focus on their strengths

D: LSE folks focus on their weaknesses

E: Both C & D

Answer 11

E: Both C & D

Question 12

STUDY: Accessibility of Positive and Negative
Cognitions after failure (Dodgson & Wood):

A: In the study on the accessibility of positive and negative cognitions after failure, participants identified their strengths and weaknesses before performing a task and receiving negative feedback. The study measured how quickly they recalled their strengths and weaknesses post-failure. Results showed that individuals with low self-esteem (LSE) recalled weaknesses faster after failing but had no difference in recalling strengths regardless of success or failure. In contrast, high self-esteem (HSE) individuals recalled strengths more quickly after failure, helping them recover faster, while their recall of weaknesses remained unaffected. This indicates that HSE individuals focus on their strengths to cope with failure, whereas LSE individuals are more prone to ruminate on their weaknesses.

B: In the study on the accessibility of positive and negative cognitions after failure, participants only identified their strengths before performing a task and receiving negative feedback. The study measured how quickly they recalled their strengths post-failure. Results showed that individuals with low self-esteem (LSE) took longer to recall their strengths after failing, while high self-esteem (HSE) individuals recalled their strengths immediately, indicating that LSE individuals struggle more to focus on their positive traits after failure.

C: In the study on the accessibility of positive and negative cognitions after failure, participants identified their strengths and weaknesses before performing a task and receiving positive feedback. The study measured how quickly they recalled their strengths and weaknesses post-success. Results showed that individuals with low self-esteem (LSE) recalled strengths faster after succeeding but had no difference in recalling weaknesses regardless of success or failure. In contrast, high self-esteem (HSE) individuals recalled weaknesses more quickly after success, helping them remain humble, while their recall of strengths remained unaffected. This indicates that LSE individuals focus on their strengths to celebrate success, whereas HSE individuals are more prone to reflect on their weaknesses.

Answer 12

A: In the study on the accessibility of positive and negative cognitions after failure, participants identified their strengths and weaknesses before performing a task and receiving negative feedback. The study measured how quickly they recalled their strengths and weaknesses post-failure. Results showed that individuals with low self-esteem (LSE) recalled weaknesses faster after failing but had no difference in recalling strengths regardless of success or failure. In contrast, high self-esteem (HSE) individuals recalled strengths more quickly after failure, helping them recover faster, while their recall of weaknesses remained unaffected. This indicates that HSE individuals focus on their strengths to cope with failure, whereas LSE individuals are more prone to ruminate on their weaknesses.

Question 13

STUDY: Watching comedy after failure
Heimpel, Wood, Marshall & Brown (2002):

A: Participants with high or low self-esteem failed or succeeded at a task and then chose between watching a documentary or a comedy. Low self-esteem (LSE) individuals preferred watching comedy after failure, aiming to distract themselves from their negative emotions. LSE individuals were also less likely to volunteer to help others after failing, preferring to focus on their own recovery. Overall, LSE individuals have less favorable self-views and struggle more with maintaining and restoring these views, showing less resilience and motivation to recover from failure.

B: Participants with high or low self-esteem failed or succeeded at a task and then chose between watching a drama or a documentary. High self-esteem (HSE) individuals preferred watching a documentary after failure, aiming to engage in intellectual stimulation to distract themselves from their negative emotions. HSE individuals were also less likely to volunteer to help others after failing, preferring solitary activities to recover. Overall, HSE individuals have more favorable self-views but struggle to restore these views after failure, showing less resilience in social contexts.

C: Participants with high or low self-esteem failed or succeeded at a task and then chose between watching a documentary or a comedy. High self-esteem (HSE) individuals preferred watching comedy after failure, aiming to improve their mood quickly. HSE individuals were also more likely to volunteer to help others after failing, using this as another way to boost their mood. Overall, HSE individuals have more favorable self-views and are better at maintaining and restoring these views, showing resilience and motivation to recover from failure.

Answer 13

C: Participants with high or low self-esteem failed or succeeded at a task and then chose between watching a documentary or a comedy. High self-esteem (HSE) individuals preferred watching comedy after failure, aiming to improve their mood quickly. HSE individuals were also more likely to volunteer to help others after failing, using this as another way to boost their mood. Overall, HSE individuals have more favorable self-views and are better at maintaining and restoring these views, showing resilience and motivation to recover from failure.

Question 14

Is high self-esteem always a good thing?

A: No
B: Yes

Answer 14

A: No - Establishes high standards to uphold

Question 15

STUDY: Gambling After Failure
Baumeister, Heatherton & Tice (1993):

A: Participants with high or low self-esteem were given a gambling task after either failing or succeeding at a prior task. Without an ego threat, high self-esteem (HSE) individuals gambled significantly more than low self-esteem (LSE) individuals, indicating that HSE individuals naturally take more risks regardless of prior success or failure. This suggests that HSE individuals are generally more prone to risky behavior.

B: Participants with high or low self-esteem were given a gambling task after either failing or succeeding at a prior task. Without an ego threat, both groups gambled similarly and left with the same amount of money. However, after an ego threat, high self-esteem (HSE) individuals took more risks and often lost all their money, showing reckless behavior driven by a desire to quickly restore their mood and achieve a big win. This highlights a potential dark side of HSE.

C: Participants with high or low self-esteem were given a gambling task after either failing or succeeding at a prior task. Without an ego threat, low self-esteem (LSE) individuals took more risks and often lost all their money, showing reckless behavior driven by a desire to prove themselves. However, after an ego threat, both groups gambled similarly, indicating that ego threats do not significantly impact gambling behavior in high self-esteem individuals. This suggests that LSE individuals are more affected by ego threats in gambling contexts.

Answer 15

B: Participants with high or low self-esteem were given a gambling task after either failing or succeeding at a prior task. Without an ego threat, both groups gambled similarly and left with the same amount of money. However, after an ego threat, high self-esteem (HSE) individuals took more risks and often lost all their money, showing reckless behavior driven by a desire to quickly restore their mood and achieve a big win. This highlights a potential dark side of HSE.

Question 16

STUDY: Threatened Ego & Aggression
Bushman & Baumeister (1998):

A: Participants’ aggression was measured by allowing them to blast others with noise. Low self-esteem (LSE) individuals, when threatened, delivered the longest and loudest noise blasts, believing it would make them feel better. Similarly, LSE individuals were more likely to give excessive hot sauce, even when informed of an allergy, demonstrating heightened aggression under ego threat.

B: Participants’ aggression was measured by allowing them to blast others with noise. High self-esteem (HSE) individuals, when not threatened, delivered the longest and loudest noise blasts, believing it would make them feel better. Similarly, HSE individuals were more likely to give excessive hot sauce, even when informed of an allergy, demonstrating heightened aggression without any ego threat.

C: Participants’ aggression was measured by allowing them to blast others with noise. High self-esteem (HSE) individuals, when threatened, delivered the longest and loudest noise blasts, believing it would make them feel better. Similarly, HSE individuals were more likely to give excessive hot sauce, even when informed of an allergy, demonstrating heightened aggression under ego threat.

Answer 16

C: Participants’ aggression was measured by allowing them to blast others with noise. High self-esteem (HSE) individuals, when threatened, delivered the longest and loudest noise blasts, believing it would make them feel better. Similarly, HSE individuals were more likely to give excessive hot sauce, even when informed of an allergy, demonstrating heightened aggression under ego threat.

Question 17

Does HSE lead to helping or hurting others?

A: We’ve seen both
B: Helping
C: Hurting

Answer 17

A: We’ve seen both

HSE will do both

It depends on which opportunities to raise their self-esteem are available

HSE folks will help, hurt, or just watch a comedy, whatever is available to help restore their mood

Question 18

Should we try to increase self-esteem?

A: Yes
B: It must be earned - focus on becoming more genuinely esteemable rather than just increasing self-esteem.
C: No

Answer 18

B: It must be earned - focus on becoming more genuinely esteemable rather than just increasing self-esteem.

Question 19

Does increasing self-esteem through manipulation improve academic
performance?

A: Yes
B: No

Answer 19

B: No

In the 1980s, a task force aimed to boost self-esteem to address issues like education, crime, drug abuse, and teen pregnancy, leading to the self-esteem movement. However, manipulating self-esteem by giving false praise did not improve academic performance or other outcomes (Baumeister, Campbell et al., 2003). Kids receiving unearned praise felt invincible and were more likely to engage in reckless behavior. It’s more effective to achieve self-esteem through real accomplishments and to teach self-control and delayed gratification, which lead to greater success in various areas.

Question 20

How do we know what kind of person we are
and how good we are at different things?

A: We determine our qualities and abilities through introspection alone, without any reference to others. This self-evaluation process relies purely on our own perceptions and thoughts about our abilities and characteristics, independent of any social influence or comparison.

B: We determine our qualities and abilities through feedback from authoritative figures such as teachers, parents, and mentors. This external evaluation provides an objective measure of our skills and traits, ensuring that our self-assessment is accurate and unbiased.

C: We determine our qualities and abilities by comparing ourselves to others, similar to Sartre’s idea of “the look.” We evaluate skills like math, writing, and conversation using chosen reference points. This selection is motivated by a desire to view ourselves favorably, though it may not always be reasonable. Social comparison helps us either learn about ourselves or feel good, but rarely both. According to Hypothesis #5, we are driven by the need for accuracy and likability. These motivations can conflict, and the type of comparison we make will influence which motive prevails.

Answer 20

C: We determine our qualities and abilities by comparing ourselves to others, similar to Sartre’s idea of “the look.” We evaluate skills like math, writing, and conversation using chosen reference points. This selection is motivated by a desire to view ourselves favorably, though it may not always be reasonable. Social comparison helps us either learn about ourselves or feel good, but rarely both. According to Hypothesis #5, we are driven by the need for accuracy and likability. These motivations can conflict, and the type of comparison we make will influence which motive prevails.

Question 21

Social Comparison Theory (Festinger, 1954):

A: We compare ourselves to others solely for the purpose of enhancing our self-esteem. This theory suggests that we always choose comparisons that make us feel superior and avoid comparisons that might lower our self-esteem, focusing entirely on boosting our self-worth without any intention of self-improvement.

B: We compare ourselves to others to evaluate our own abilities and status. Upward comparisons, where we compare ourselves to someone better, often make us feel bad but provide valuable information on how to improve. In contrast, downward comparisons, where we compare ourselves to someone worse, make us feel good but don’t help us improve. Thus, while downward comparisons boost self-esteem, upward comparisons are more informative and can drive personal growth.

C: We compare ourselves to others to validate our existing beliefs and avoid any new information that might challenge our current self-perception. This theory suggests that comparisons are used primarily to confirm what we already think about ourselves, maintaining stability in our self-concept without any significant impact on self-esteem or motivation for change.

Answer 21

B: We compare ourselves to others to evaluate our own abilities and status. Upward comparisons, where we compare ourselves to someone better, often make us feel bad but provide valuable information on how to improve. In contrast, downward comparisons, where we compare ourselves to someone worse, make us feel good but don’t help us improve. Thus, while downward comparisons boost self-esteem, upward comparisons are more informative and can drive personal growth.

Question 22

Basking in reflected glory (Cialdini, 1976):

A: Refers to taking pride in our own individual accomplishments and avoiding any association with the success of others. This behavior emphasizes personal achievements and diminishes the importance of group or team success, focusing solely on individual glory.

B: Refers to diminishing the success of others we are connected to in order to make ourselves feel better. This behavior involves distancing ourselves from the achievements of friends or teams to maintain a sense of superiority and avoid feeling overshadowed.

C: AKA: BIRGing, refers to taking pride in the success of those we are connected to, like saying “we won” when our team wins and wearing school clothes to show support. Conversely, when the team loses, we tend to say “they lost” and avoid displaying team affiliation. While we generally feel good when our group does well, this can sometimes make us feel bad if it negatively affects our self-view, especially if a friend’s success highlights our own shortcomings in areas important to us.

Answer 22

C: AKA: BIRGing, refers to taking pride in the success of those we are connected to, like saying “we won” when our team wins and wearing school clothes to show support. Conversely, when the team loses, we tend to say “they lost” and avoid displaying team affiliation. While we generally feel good when our group does well, this can sometimes make us feel bad if it negatively affects our self-view, especially if a friend’s success highlights our own shortcomings in areas important to us.

Question 23

Self-Evaluation Maintenance Theory Abe Tesser:

A: This theory explains when social comparisons become threatening. We are motivated to maintain a positive self-image, often unconsciously. Two key variables determine our reaction: the closeness of the person to us (strong vs. weak social tie) and the relevance of their success to our own identity (self-relevant vs. not self-relevant domain). We generally feel happier for a friend’s success in a non-relevant domain. However, if a close friend excels in a self-relevant area, it can feel threatening and diminish our happiness for them.

B: This theory suggests that social comparisons are always positive and never threatening. It posits that we are motivated to feel good about ourselves by seeing others succeed, regardless of our relationship with them or the relevance of their success to our own identity. We always feel happier for others’ success and never experience any negative emotions from these comparisons.

C: This theory explains when social comparisons are completely irrelevant to our self-image. It posits that we do not react to others’ success or failure, regardless of our relationship with them or the relevance of their success to our own identity. We remain unaffected by social comparisons and maintain a stable self-image that is not influenced by others’ achievements.

Answer 23

A: This theory explains when social comparisons become threatening. We are motivated to maintain a positive self-image, often unconsciously. Two key variables determine our reaction: the closeness of the person to us (strong vs. weak social tie) and the relevance of their success to our own identity (self-relevant vs. not self-relevant domain). We generally feel happier for a friend’s success in a non-relevant domain. However, if a close friend excels in a self-relevant area, it can feel threatening and diminish our happiness for them.

Question 24

STUDY: Self-Evaluation Maintenance
(Tesser & Cornell, 1991):

A: Participants had 60 seconds to provide clues for the other person to guess the correct answer, paired with either a stranger or a friend. They were told it was either a harmless game or a test of intelligence. Blind judges rated the helpfulness of the clues. Results showed that when it was framed as a game, participants gave more helpful clues to friends. However, when framed as an intelligence test, participants gave less helpful clues to friends, aiming to appear smarter than their friends.

B: Participants were asked to solve puzzles either alone or in pairs with a friend or stranger. They were told it was either a harmless game or a test of teamwork. Blind judges rated the cooperation between pairs. Results showed that when it was framed as a game, participants cooperated more with strangers. However, when framed as a teamwork test, participants cooperated more with friends, aiming to achieve a higher score together.

C: Participants had 60 seconds to guess words based on clues provided by either a friend or a stranger. They were told it was either a harmless game or a test of memory. Blind judges rated the accuracy of the guesses. Results showed that when it was framed as a game, participants guessed more accurately with friends. However, when framed as a memory test, participants guessed more accurately with strangers, aiming to demonstrate their superior memory skills.

Answer 24

A: Participants had 60 seconds to provide clues for the other person to guess the correct answer, paired with either a stranger or a friend. They were told it was either a harmless game or a test of intelligence. Blind judges rated the helpfulness of the clues. Results showed that when it was framed as a game, participants gave more helpful clues to friends. However, when framed as an intelligence test, participants gave less helpful clues to friends, aiming to appear smarter than their friends.

Question 25

Social feedback - What do people prefer to hear about themselves?

A: People generally prefer to receive critical feedback about themselves, as it helps them identify and improve on their weaknesses. This preference for negative feedback is evident in contexts like job performance reviews and academic evaluations, where constructive criticism is highly valued.

B: People generally prefer to receive neutral feedback about themselves, as it provides a balanced view without affecting their self-esteem. This preference for neutral feedback is evident in contexts like casual conversations and peer evaluations, where unbiased opinions are most appreciated.

C: In addition to social comparison, we use social feedback to evaluate ourselves. Reflected appraisals (Mead) refer to our perception of “what I think you think of me.” People generally prefer to receive positive feedback about themselves and tend to avoid negative feedback. This preference is evident in contexts like exam grades and therapist feedback, where positive evaluations are favored.

Answer 25

C: In addition to social comparison, we use social feedback to evaluate ourselves. Reflected appraisals (Mead) refer to our perception of “what I think you think of me.” People generally prefer to receive positive feedback about themselves and tend to avoid negative feedback. This preference is evident in contexts like exam grades and therapist feedback, where positive evaluations are favored.

Question 26

Self-Enhancement Theory:

A: Individuals have a strong desire to be told they are great, regardless of the truth, and seek constant positive feedback. It emphasizes the push for positivity and the need to be liked by others (Hypothesis 5). Self-enhancement involves any actions aimed at seeing ourselves in a positive light and ensuring others perceive us positively as well. When given the choice, we prefer to hear about our good qualities, as it makes us feel better. This preference is driven by self-enhancement and is motivated by our affective goals and desire to be liked by others.

B: Individuals have a strong desire to receive accurate feedback, regardless of whether it is positive or negative. This theory emphasizes the importance of self-accuracy and the need to be seen as realistic and grounded. Self-enhancement involves actions aimed at obtaining truthful feedback to improve oneself and gain respect from others. When given the choice, we prefer to hear about our flaws, as it helps us grow. This preference is driven by self-improvement and is motivated by our cognitive goals and desire for self-knowledge.

C: Individuals have a strong desire to avoid any feedback, whether positive or negative, to maintain emotional stability. This theory emphasizes the avoidance of feedback to prevent any potential impact on self-esteem. Self-enhancement involves actions aimed at minimizing external evaluations and focusing on internal self-assessment. When given the choice, we prefer not to receive any feedback, as it keeps us emotionally stable. This preference is driven by self-preservation and is motivated by our defensive goals and desire to avoid criticism.

Answer 26

A: Individuals have a strong desire to be told they are great, regardless of the truth, and seek constant positive feedback. It emphasizes the push for positivity and the need to be liked by others (Hypothesis 5). Self-enhancement involves any actions aimed at seeing ourselves in a positive light and ensuring others perceive us positively as well. When given the choice, we prefer to hear about our good qualities, as it makes us feel better. This preference is driven by self-enhancement and is motivated by our affective goals and desire to be liked by others.

• The self-enhancement and self-verification theories agree when it comes to strengths/ positive feedback about the self but disagree when it comes to feedback about weaknesses. Four studies were done to test this.

Question 27

Self-Verification Theory:

A: The theory suggests that individuals seek out feedback that challenges their self-perception, as it provides opportunities for personal growth and improvement. It emphasizes the importance of receiving feedback that contradicts one’s existing beliefs to foster self-development. This approach prioritizes self-improvement over maintaining consistency in self-perception.

B: The desire for feedback that aligns with our self-perception, not necessarily objective truth. It emphasizes the need for consistency and accurate recognition by others (Hypothesis 5), valuing feedback that matches our existing beliefs about ourselves. This approach prioritizes being understood accurately over always feeling good. If we have to hear about a specific trait, we prefer to hear what we believe is true, even if the truth is negative. This preference is driven by self-verification and motivated by our informational goals and desire to be accurately known by others. Despite this, hearing negative truths still has affective consequences, making us feel bad.

C: The theory suggests that individuals prefer to avoid any feedback, whether it aligns with their self-perception or not, to maintain emotional equilibrium. It emphasizes the avoidance of feedback to prevent any potential disruption to one’s self-concept. This approach prioritizes emotional stability over receiving consistent or accurate feedback about oneself.

Answer 27

B: The desire for feedback that aligns with our self-perception, not necessarily objective truth. It emphasizes the need for consistency and accurate recognition by others (Hypothesis 5), valuing feedback that matches our existing beliefs about ourselves. This approach prioritizes being understood accurately over always feeling good. If we have to hear about a specific trait, we prefer to hear what we believe is true, even if the truth is negative. This preference is driven by self-verification and motivated by our informational goals and desire to be accurately known by others. Despite this, hearing negative truths still has affective consequences, making us feel bad.

• The self-enhancement and self-verification theories agree when it comes to strengths/ positive feedback about the self but disagree when it comes to feedback about weaknesses. Four studies were done to test this.

Question 28

STUDY 1: Self-Enhancement vs. Self-Verification - Motivation to get certain kinds of feedback if you get to choose (Swann, Pelham & Krull, 1989):

A: Participants listed and rated five qualities based on how positively they viewed themselves on each. They were then asked how much they would enjoy receiving feedback on a quality they felt neutral about. The study found that people preferred feedback on their neutral quality, suggesting that they seek balanced feedback that neither enhances nor verifies their self-perception.

B: Participants listed and rated five qualities based on how positively they viewed themselves on each. They were asked how much they would enjoy receiving feedback on their highest and lowest-rated qualities. The study found that people preferred feedback on their best quality, supporting self-enhancement theory, which suggests we favor positive feedback over negative feedback.

C: Participants listed and rated five qualities based on how positively they viewed themselves on each. They were asked how much they would enjoy receiving feedback on a quality rated by an external source. The study found that people preferred feedback from an external source, suggesting that they seek validation from others regardless of their own self-perception, thus prioritizing external opinions over internal beliefs.

Answer 28

B: Participants listed and rated five qualities based on how positively they viewed themselves on each. They were asked how much they would enjoy receiving feedback on their highest and lowest-rated qualities. The study found that people preferred feedback on their best quality, supporting self-enhancement theory, which suggests we favor positive feedback over negative feedback.

Question 29

STUDY 2: Self-Enhancement vs. Self-Verification - Motivation to get certain kinds of feedback if you don’t get to choose (Swann, Pelham & Krull, 1989):

A: When participants had to receive feedback on both their highest and lowest-rated qualities, they preferred favorable feedback for their best attributes, aligning with their existing positive self-views. However, for their worst attributes, they preferred unfavorable feedback, as it confirmed their negative self-views. This supports self-verification theory, which suggests people seek feedback that aligns with their existing beliefs about themselves.

B: When participants were required to receive feedback on their highest and lowest-rated qualities, they preferred favorable feedback for their lowest-rated qualities to boost their self-esteem. However, for their highest-rated qualities, they preferred unfavorable feedback to challenge themselves and improve further. This supports a mix of self-enhancement and self-improvement motivations, suggesting people seek feedback that helps them grow, regardless of existing beliefs.

C: When participants had to receive feedback on qualities they rated as neutral, they preferred any kind of feedback that provided new information, regardless of whether it was positive or negative. This supports the idea that people are motivated by a desire for learning and growth, rather than by self-enhancement or self-verification, indicating a preference for informative feedback over confirmatory or flattering feedback.

Answer 29

A: When participants had to receive feedback on both their highest and lowest-rated qualities, they preferred favorable feedback for their best attributes, aligning with their existing positive self-views. However, for their worst attributes, they preferred unfavorable feedback, as it confirmed their negative self-views. This supports self-verification theory, which suggests people seek feedback that aligns with their existing beliefs about themselves.

Question 30

STUDY 3: Self-Enhancement vs. Self-Verification - How much do you believe different kinds of feedback? (Swann, Griffin, Predmore & Gaines, 1987):

A: Participants with either high self-esteem (HSE) or low self-esteem (LSE) received both positive and negative feedback from a personality expert. The results showed that individuals with HSE found both favorable and unfavorable feedback to be equally accurate, indicating that self-esteem does not influence the perception of feedback. Conversely, individuals with LSE dismissed all feedback, showing a general distrust in the expert’s assessment. This contradicts both self-enhancement and self-verification theories.

B: Participants with either high self-esteem (HSE) or low self-esteem (LSE) received only positive feedback from a personality expert. The results showed that individuals with HSE believed the positive feedback to be highly accurate, while individuals with LSE believed the positive feedback to be less accurate. This supports self-enhancement theory, suggesting that people with high self-esteem are more likely to accept positive feedback regardless of its source.

C: Participants with either high self-esteem (HSE) or low self-esteem (LSE) received both positive and negative feedback from a personality expert. The results showed that individuals with HSE found favorable feedback to be accurate and dismissed unfavorable feedback, believing the experts “didn’t get them.” Conversely, individuals with LSE believed the unfavorable feedback was accurate and dismissed the favorable feedback. This supports self-verification theory, as people tended to believe feedback that aligned with their pre-existing self-views.

Answer 30

C: Participants with either high self-esteem (HSE) or low self-esteem (LSE) received both positive and negative feedback from a personality expert. The results showed that individuals with HSE found favorable feedback to be accurate and dismissed unfavorable feedback, believing the experts “didn’t get them.” Conversely, individuals with LSE believed the unfavorable feedback was accurate and dismissed the favorable feedback. This supports self-verification theory, as people tended to believe feedback that aligned with their pre-existing self-views.

Question 31

STUDY 4: Self-Enhancement vs. Self-Verification - How do you feel after getting certain kinds of feedback? (Swann, Griffin, Predmore & Gaines, 1987):

A: Replica of study 3, but participants were asked how they felt after receiving feedback. Individuals with high self-esteem (HSE) felt neutral after favorable feedback and very bad after unfavorable feedback, which supports neither self-enhancement nor self-verification theories. This suggests that HSE individuals are unaffected by positive feedback but highly sensitive to negative feedback.

B: Replica of study 3, but participants were asked how they felt after receiving feedback. Individuals with high self-esteem (HSE) felt very good after favorable feedback, consistent with both self-enhancement and self-verification theories. However, individuals with low self-esteem (LSE) also felt very good after favorable feedback, which only supports the self-enhancement theory. Despite not believing the positive feedback, it still made them feel good. This result supports self-enhancement theory, as positive feedback improves mood regardless of belief.

C: Replica of study 3, but participants were asked how they felt after receiving feedback. Individuals with low self-esteem (LSE) felt very bad after favorable feedback and very good after unfavorable feedback, which contradicts both self-enhancement and self-verification theories. This suggests that LSE individuals are more comfortable with negative feedback and feel uncomfortable when receiving positive feedback.

Answer 31

B: Replica of study 3, but participants were asked how they felt after receiving feedback. Individuals with high self-esteem (HSE) felt very good after favorable feedback, consistent with both self-enhancement and self-verification theories. However, individuals with low self-esteem (LSE) also felt very good after favorable feedback, which only supports the self-enhancement theory. Despite not believing the positive feedback, it still made them feel good. This result supports self-enhancement theory, as positive feedback improves mood regardless of belief.

Question 32

Why do we ever choose negative feedback?

A: We choose negative feedback to reinforce our belief in our abilities and strengths. By focusing on negative feedback, we can use it as motivation to prove others wrong and show that we can overcome any criticism.

B: We choose negative feedback to avoid feeling complacent and to stay motivated. Negative feedback keeps us alert and drives us to constantly improve and strive for better results, preventing us from becoming too comfortable with our current performance.

C: We choose negative feedback to avoid feeling phony and to be accurately known and understood. It helps us improve, especially in social groups, balancing our desire to feel good with the need for authenticity. While we generally seek positive feedback, negative feedback is crucial for genuine growth and improvement.

Answer 32

C: We choose negative feedback to avoid feeling phony and to be accurately known and understood. It helps us improve, especially in social groups, balancing our desire to feel good with the need for authenticity. While we generally seek positive feedback, negative feedback is crucial for genuine growth and improvement.