Morphology all of it

Question 1

What do word classes refer to?

Answer 1

NOUNS (N) = refer to entities (concrete and abstract)
PRONOUNS (P) = refer to entities indirectly to their relation
ADJECTIVES (Adj) = refer to features and qualities of entities
VERBS (V) = refer to processes (activities/events/states)
ADVERBS (Adv) = refer to features of processes, modification of features
NUMERALS (Num) = refer to quantities, determining number
PREPOSITIONS (Prep) = express semantico-grammatical relationships
CONJUNCTIONS (C) = express semantico-grammatical links
PARTICLES (Part) = forms not affiliated to any world class
ARTICLES (Art) = carry the grammatical category of determination
INTERJECTIONS (Int) = words/sound combinations expressing emotions

Question 2

lexical innovation of word classes

Answer 2

open (nouns, verbs, can be created easily) = permit addition of new words
closed word classes (pronouns, prepositions…) = finite set

Question 3

conversion

Answer 3

= the ability of words to belong to different world class without change in their form = zero-derivation
- a typical feature of word classes in English
- stress within the word can change when the word class is changed
- useful in new-word-formation: productive
- noun –> verb: change –> to change
verb –> noun: to ship –> ship
noun –> adjective: school
adjective –> noun: green
adjective –> verb: clean –> to clean

Question 4

the reference and/or functions of individual word classes (not sure if right)

Answer 4

Nouns:
Reference: Nouns refer to people, places, things, or abstract concepts.
Functions: Serve as subjects or objects in sentences, express the main idea of a sentence, and can function as the object of prepositions.
Example: (The cat) is sleeping on (the mat).

Verbs:
Reference: Verbs express actions, states, or occurrences.
Functions: Serve as the predicate in a sentence, indicating what the subject does or the state it is in.
Example: The cat (is sleeping) on the mat.

Adjectives:
Reference: Adjectives describe or modify nouns.
Functions: Provide details about the qualities or characteristics of nouns.
Example: The (brown) cat is sleeping on the mat.

Adverbs:
Reference: Adverbs modify verbs, adjectives, or other adverbs, indicating manner, time, place, or degree.
Functions: Add information about how, when, where, or to what extent an action or quality occurs.
Example: The cat is sleeping (peacefully) on the mat.

Pronouns:
Reference: Pronouns replace or refer to nouns.
Functions: Avoid repetition, making sentences less cumbersome, and help maintain coherence.
Example: (She) is sleeping on the mat.

Prepositions:
Reference: Prepositions show relationships between nouns (or pronouns) and other elements in a sentence.
Functions: Indicate location, direction, time, or other relationships.
Example: The cat is sleeping (on) the mat.

Conjunctions:
Reference: Conjunctions connect words, phrases, or clauses.
Functions: Join elements to express relationships such as addition, contrast, or cause and effect.
Example: The cat is sleeping (and) the dog is playing.

Interjections:
Reference: Interjections express emotions, reactions, or exclamations.
Functions: Convey the speaker’s attitude or emotional state.
Example: (Wow), the cat is sleeping on the mat!

Question 5

semantic subclasses of word classes (nouns)

Answer 5

budou jednotlivé otázky – VERBS nebo NOUNS

NOUNS:
- common (house, boy, love) x proper (Viki, Peťas, Robin, Moon, Sun)
- concrete (phone, stone, bone) x abstract (love, hate, spirit)
- countable (singular: man x plural: men) x uncountable (coffee, information, sand)
- animate (fish, person, movie) x inanimate (table, ball, sadness)

Question 6

grammatical categories of word classes (name all)

Answer 6

Nouns:
- Determination: Indefinite (a, an), Definite (the)
- Definiteness: Definite, Indefinite
- Number: Singular, Plural
- Case: Nominative Case, Objective Case
- Gender: Masculine, Feminine, Neuter
- Countability: Countable, Uncountable

Verbs:
- Tense: Present, Past, Future
- Aspect, Simple, Continuous/Progressive, Perfect
- Mood: Indicative, Imperative, Subjunctive
- Voice: Active, Passive
- Number: Singular, Plural
- Person: First Person, Second Person, Third Person

Adjectives:
- Degree: Positive, Comparative, Superlative

Adverbs:
- Degree:Positive, Comparative, Superlative

Pronouns:
- Person, First Person, Second Person, Third Person
- Number: Singular, Plural

Prepositions:
- Relationship: Spatial (in, on, under), Temporal (before, after, during)

Conjunctions:
- Type: Coordinating (and, but, or), Subordinating (because, although, if)

Question 7

form and meaning (of words - FROM SCRIPTS)

Answer 7

FORM AND MEANING
Form and meaning refer to the way that words are constructed and the meaning that they convey.
Form refers to the physical structure of a word, including its spelling and pronunciation, as well as its internal structure or morphology.

• MEANING refers to the semantic content of the word - the ideas, concepts, or objects that the word represents.
• FORM of a word is closely tied to its meaning, and changes in one can affect the other - e.g. adding a suffix “-ness” to a word “kind” changes its form to “kindness” –> also changes its meaning to refer to the quality of being kind.

Question 8

Group structures – semantic and syntactic functions of their elements

Answer 8

Subject, object, predicate, complement. ?

Question 9

Agent x patient

Answer 9

Agent:
- The ‘doer’ of the action denoted by the predicate.
- the initiator of some action, capable of acting with volition. – Jack ate the beans.

Patient:
- The ‘undergoer’ of the action or event denoted by the predicate
- the entity undergoing the effect of some action, often undergoing some change of state.

The terms “agent” and “patient” are used to describe the participants in an action or event. These roles are often associated with verbs and help identify the doer of an action (agent) and the entity affected by the action (patient).
What is an example of an agent patient?
For example, in the sentence “Jack kicked the ball”, Jack is the agent and the ball is the patient.

Question 10

Erase pls

Answer 10

??? :-)

Question 11

endocentric and exocentric structures

Answer 11

Group structures in language are linguistic units that are more complex than individual words. They represent how words combine to create the building blocks of sentences. There are two main types of group structures: endocentric and exocentric.

ENDOCENTRIC
- consist of OBLIGATORY head and several optional elements in pre-head and post-head position

head only: students
Determiner, modifier, head (noun), qualifier:
- those clever STUDENTS of mine (NP)
- some american FILMS we saw (NP)
- extremely HOT indeed (AdjP)
- quite FOND of music (AdjP)
- very EARLY in the morning (AdvP)
- quite SOON after the event (AdvP)

EXOCENTRIC
consists of the head and an obligatory completive, only the modifier is optional
- straight ALON this road (PP)
- just AT the moment (PP)

VERB PHRASE IS DIFFERENT
from the others, since the pre-head elements represents grammatical meanings related to the verb
- were SINGING joyfully. (VP)
- is RUNNING (VP)
operator - auxiliary (1+) - head (verb)

Question 12

syntactic functions of group elements

Answer 12

“syntactic functions” refers to the grammatical roles that elements within a sentence or phrase play in relation to each other.

Subject (S):
Function: The main element that performs the action or about which something is stated.
Example: The cat is sleeping.

Predicate (P):
Function: The part of the sentence that provides information about the subject, typically including the main verb and its complements.
Example: The cat is sleeping.

Object (O):
Function: The element that receives the action of the verb.
Example: She likes chocolate.

Complement (C):
Function: An element that completes the meaning of the verb and provides additional information about the subject or object. Example: She seems happy.

Modifier (M):
Function: An element that adds descriptive or limiting information to another element in the sentence.
Example: The house with red shutters is beautiful.

Adverbial (A):
Function: An element that provides information about the manner, place, time, frequency, or degree of the action or state expressed by the verb.
Example: They walked in the park.

Determiner (D):
Function: An element that introduces and specifies a noun.
Example: She has a cat.

Qualifier (Q):
Function: An element that intensifies or weakens the meaning of another element.
Example: He is very talented.

Question 13

Erase

Answer 13

??? :-)

Question 14

morphology in general

Answer 14

= deals with the internal structure of words
- words- have internal structure consisting of smaller units - morphemes
- morphemes - smallest unit that carries menaning - simple(monomorphemic) x complex (polymorphemic) words - consisting of one x more morphemes (such as morpheme + affixes)

classification of morphemes:
bound: prett-ier
free: more beautiful

prefixes: un-happy
sufixes: kind-ly, modernize
interfixes: agr-i-culture
circumfixes: un-imagine-able

lexical: sun, moon
non-lexical: boy-hood, kind-ness

Question 15

semantic subclassification of word classes (pronouns)

Answer 15

PRONOUNS:
⦁ personal – I, you, he, she, it, we, they, him, her, us, them
⦁ possessive – attributive: my, mine, his, hers, its, our /nominal: ours, theirs
⦁ reflexive – myself, yourself, himself, herself, itself, yourselves, themselves
⦁ reciprocal – each other, one another
⦁ demonstrative – this, that, these, those
⦁ interrogative – who, whom, whose, which, what
⦁ indefinite – universal: all, each, every / assertive: some / non-assertive: any / negative: no one, nobody
⦁ quantifying – many, more, less, few, enough
⦁ substitute – one, that

Question 16

semantic subclassification of word classes (verbs)

Answer 16

VERBS:
⦁ structural classes
⦁ lexical (swim, eat, drink, cook, sleep)
⦁ auxiliary
⦁ primary (be, have, do)
⦁ modal (shall, should, will, would, can, could, may, might, must, ought)

⦁ syntactic classes
⦁ intransitive: agent-verb (Marry laughs)
⦁ transitive: agent-verb-patient
⦁ monotransitive (farmer built a house): object direct
⦁ ditransitive (He gave me a book): object indirect, object direct
+ copulas: two arguments referring to the same entity: be, seem, become, appear (Jim is a student)

⦁ semantic classes
⦁ states
⦁ relational (be, have, belong)
⦁ verbs of cognition, perception, affectivity (know, remember, see, hear, love, hate)

⦁ processes: activities, achievements, accomplishments
⦁ durative (sleep) x punctual (knock)
⦁ agentive (write) x non-agentive (rain)
⦁ bounded (die) telic x unbounded (dream) atelic

Question 17

form and meaning (of words - FROM GPT)

Answer 17

Form of Words:
- Phonological Form: This refers to the sound pattern of a word.
- Orthographic Form: This relates to the written representation of a word.

Meaning of Words:
- Lexical Meaning: This is the core, dictionary definition of a word. It represents the central concept or idea associated with the word. For example, the lexical meaning of “dog” is a domesticated mammal.
- Grammatical Meaning: Words also have grammatical functions and roles within sentences. For instance, verbs convey actions or states, nouns represent entities, adjectives describe qualities, etc.
- Semantic Meaning: Beyond the strict dictionary definition, words carry nuanced meanings based on context and usage. The connotations and associations.

Morphological Form:
- Morphemes: These are the smallest units of meaning in a language. Words can be broken down into morphemes, each contributing to the overall meaning. For instance, the word “unhappiness” has three morphemes: “un-“ (negation), “happy” (root), and “-ness” (noun-forming suffix).

Syntactic Function:
- Word Order: The arrangement of words in a sentence contributes to meaning. For example, “The cat chased the dog” conveys a different meaning than “The dog chased the cat.”
- Syntactic Roles: Words take on specific roles within sentence structures. Nouns may function as subjects or objects, verbs indicate actions, and adjectives modify nouns.

Question 18

Word formational processes

Answer 18

⦁ DERIVATION = affixation = new word from adding a prefix/suffix to the base (foreword, unhappy, likely)
⦁ BACK-DERIVATION = de-affixation = new word by deleting/removing affixes (editor –> to edit, babysitter –> to babysit)
⦁ CONVERSION = zero affixation = changing meaning without adding any fixes (he is back x to back someone up x my back)
⦁ ABBREVIATION
⦁ CLIPPING – clips = cutting complicated morphemes (examination –> exam, laboratory –> lab)
⦁ BLENDING – blends = blending 2 words together (motorest + hotel = motel, breakfast + lunch = brunch)
⦁ INITIALISM
⦁ ALPHABETISM – read letter by letter (DJ, USA, TV)
⦁ ACRONYMS – read as a whole word (ASAP, UNICEF, BASIC)
⦁ COMPOUNDING = combining lexical morphemes
⦁ ENDOcentric – meaning comes from within the word (baseball, throwback)
⦁ EXOcentric – meaning comes from outside (party animal, killjoy, sweettooth)
⦁ BORROWING = taking words from different languages (robot, ketchup, opera, balcony, kebab)
+ reduplication = ablaut/rhyme combinations which are supposed to sound nice (ping pong, honky tonky, zig zag)

Question 19

Agent, patient

Answer 19

“Agent” and “Patient” are terms used in linguistics to describe the relationship between the doer of an action and the receiver of the action in a sentence.

Agent:
Definition: The doer or performer of the action in a sentence.
Example: In the sentence “She eats an apple,” “She” is the agent because she is performing the action of eating.

Patient:
Definition: The receiver or undergoer of the action in a sentence.
Example: In the sentence “She eats an apple,” “an apple” is the patient because it undergoes the action of being eaten by the agent (she).

Question 20

theme x rheme

Answer 20

Theme:

Definition: The theme is the information that the sentence is about, often placed at the beginning.
Example: In the sentence “The cat is sleeping,” “The cat” is the theme because it introduces what the sentence is about.

Rheme:
Definition: The rheme is the information that provides more detail or comment about the theme. It often comes after the theme.
Example: In the sentence “The cat is sleeping,” “is sleeping” is the rheme because it adds information or comment about the theme.

Question 21

thematic roles

Answer 21

The arguments which a verb assigns are referred to as Thematic or Theta Roles.
Major theta roles include:

-Agent – The entity that intentionally carries out the action of the verb.
-Experiencer – The entity that undergoes an emotion, a state of being, or a perception expressed by the verb.
-Theme – The entity that directly receives the action of the verb.
-Instrument – The entity by which the action of the verb is carried out.
-Goal – The direction towards which the action of the verb moves.
-Source – The direction from which the action originates.
-Location – The location where the action of the verb takes place.
-Benefactive – The entity that receives a concrete or abstract element as a result of the action of the verb

Question 22

transitivity (of verbs)

Answer 22

Transitivity in linguistics refers to the way verbs interact with their arguments, specifically regarding the number of participants involved in an action. It helps classify verbs based on whether they require direct objects and, if so, how many.

Intransitive Verbs:
Definition: Verbs that do not require a direct object.
Example: “She sleeps.” In this sentence, “sleeps” is an intransitive verb because it doesn’t require a direct object.

Transitive Verbs:
Definition: Verbs that require a direct object to complete their meaning.
Example: “He eats an apple.” In this sentence, “eats” is a transitive verb, and “an apple” is the direct object.

Ditransitive Verbs:
Definition: Verbs that require both a direct object and an indirect object.
Example: “She gave him a book.” Here, “gave” is a ditransitive verb, with “him” as the indirect object and “a book” as the direct object.

Question 23

linking (of verbs)

Answer 23

Linking verbs, also known as copula verbs, are verbs that connect the subject of a sentence to a subject complement, typically an adjective, noun, or phrase that describes or renames the subject. Unlike action verbs that show physical or mental action, linking verbs express a state of being or a relationship.

Examples:

She is happy. (The linking verb “is” connects the subject “She” to the adjective “happy.”)
The cake smells delicious. (The linking verb “smells” connects the subject “The cake” to the adjective “delicious.”)

Common linking verbs include “be” verbs (am, is, are, was, were), appear, become, feel, seem, and others.

Question 24

modality (of verbs)

Answer 24

Modality in verbs refers to the way in which the speaker expresses their attitude, likelihood, necessity, or permission regarding the action described by the verb. It adds a layer of meaning to the statement, conveying the speaker’s perspective on the likelihood, obligation, or desirability of the action.

Examples:
She must finish her homework. (Expresses necessity.)
He can swim. (Indicates ability.)
They might come to the party. (Implies possibility or uncertainty.)

Question 25

aspect (of verbs)

Answer 25

Aspect in verbs refers to the temporal characteristics of an action—how the action is viewed in terms of its duration or completion. It helps convey the temporal structure of events within a sentence.

Simple Aspect:
Describes actions in a straightforward manner without emphasizing their duration or completion.
Example: “She sings beautifully.”

Continuous (Progressive) Aspect:
Emphasizes the ongoing, continuous nature of an action.
Example: “They are watching a movie.”

Perfect Aspect:
Indicates that an action was completed before a certain point in time.
Example: “He has finished his homework.”

Perfect Continuous Aspect:
Expresses the continuous duration of an action leading up to a specific point in time.
Example: “They have been studying all night.”

Question 26

tense (of verbs)

Answer 26

Tense in verbs refers to the time of the action or state described in a sentence. It helps convey when an action occurred, is occurring, or will occur.

Present Tense:
Describes actions happening now or general truths.
Example: “She walks to school.”

Past Tense:
Describes actions that occurred in the past.
Example: “He played basketball yesterday.”

AND

FUTURE ASPECT!
it’s a variation of the present tense
we only add will or going to
but we never change the verb’s form

Question 27

grammatical vs lexical aspect

Answer 27

Grammatical Aspect:
= the verb indicates an action or state, such as whether it is ongoing, completed, or repeated - how the action is situated in time.
Example: “She is singing” (present continuous) vs. “She sings” (simple present).

Lexical Aspect:
also known as Aktionsart, is the inherent characteristics of a verb. It focuses on the nature of the action itself, whether it is momentary, repeated, or continuous.
Example: “He ran” vs. “He played the piano.” Lexical aspect goes beyond grammatical aspect to describe the inherent qualities of the actions.

Question 28

Aktionsart

Answer 28

aktionsart - states, activities, accomplishments, achievements

States:
Characteristics: Actions with a stable, unchanging state.
Sentence: “The sun sets in the south.” “Peter is tall.”

Activities:
Characteristics: Actions with an undefined duration, often ongoing.
Example: “run,” “read,” “talk.”
Sentence: “She runs every morning.”

Accomplishments:
Characteristics: Actions with a specific endpoint or result, that takes some time to accomplish.
Example: “build,” “write,” “paint.”
Sentence: “He built a house.” “She wrote a novel.”

Achievements:
Characteristics: Actions with a sudden endpoint.
Example: “win,” “arrive,” “discover.”
Sentence: “He lost the keys.” “He arrived late.”

Question 29

lexicalization vs grammaticalization

Answer 29

Lexicalization:
Lexicalization is the opposite process, where a word gains specific lexical meaning or content over time.

Example: The English word “email” has lexicalized. Initially a compound of “electronic” and “mail,” it has become a specific term referring to electronic communication.

x

Grammaticalization:
refers to the process by which a word or phrase evolves from carrying specific lexical meaning to serving a grammatical function. It involves the shift from content words to function words.

Example: The English word “going to” has undergone grammaticalization. Originally indicating movement (“I am going to the store”), it now serves as a marker for future aspect (“I am going to study”).