Linguistics all of it

Question 1

main branches of The Indo-European family of languages

Question 2

main branches of The Indo-European family of languages (genetic classification of languages)

Answer 2

• germanic - english, german, danish, dutch, swedish
• italic - italian, latin, spanish, french, portuguese
• slavic - czech, slovak, russian, bulgarian, polish
• celtic - irish, welsh, gaelic, scothish

language isolates - do not belong in any existing group

Question 3

morphological division of language types (typological classification of languages)

Answer 3

isolating x synthetic
isolating: english, chinese, spanish (he-did-not-jump-over vs czech nepřeskočil, separate - isolated words, little to no inflection or compounds present)

synthetic:
1) agglutinative: turkish, japanese (ev- house, de- at, ler- plural => evde: at the house, evler: houses, evlerde: at the houses - one morpheme - one grammatical meaning, they are combined)
2) fusional (flective): czech (one morpheme can have multiple grammatical meanings: píšu - 2.person, single number)
3) polysynthetic: eskymo languages - they combine several roots and suffixes together, very long words that can present a more complex meaning

Question 4

English as a lingua franca

Answer 4

• communication between non native speakers
• global communication - internet, science, media, politics, thechnology
• spreaded to many parts of the world (nearly quarter during the 19th century)

Question 5

Classical grammar, Medieval and Renaissance grammar

Answer 5

check this in scripts pls :)

CLASSICAL GRAMMAR:
- no english! - latin, ancient greek, sanskrit…
- interest in understanding the work of philologists such as Homer, Aristoteles, Plato
- first grammar of european language is Techné Gramatike by Dionysus Trax

RENAISSANCE/MEDIEVAL GRAMMAR:
- latin - high esteem, the primary, public written language
- later rose the interest in vernacular (native languages)
- Roger Bacon: the basics of grammar are the same in all languages
- they found out about the existence of other vernacular languages such as african, east asian, new world’s, ….

Question 6

Early grammars of English, Recent grammars of English

Answer 6

check this in scripts pls :)

EARLY GRAMMARS:
- the history of english grammar beggins with William Bullokar’s Pamphlet for grammar
- in the earl works, the grammar of english was based upon the one of latin
- 17th C - demand for english grammar among speakers of other languages
- 19th C -recognition of the family relationships between indo european languages => William Jones found COMPARATIVE LINGUISTICS
- Jacob Grimm - grammar of Germanic Languages

RECENT GRAMMARS:
- first complex english grammars - more syntax (usually written by non-native speakers)
- 1984 HALLIDAY - An introduction to FUNCTIONAL GRAMMAR
- 1996 GREENBAUM - Oxford english grammar

Question 7

20th century: Structural linguistics, Descriptive linguistics, Generative linguistics, Systemic Linguistics
(THE MODERN LINGUISTICS)

Answer 7

Structural linguistics
- FERDINAND DE SAUSSURE
- language is a form, not a substance, its a structure of interconnected signs
- SIGNIFIER VS SIGNIFIED
- LANGUAGE X PAROLE
- The Prague’s school - interested in phonology, the phoneme

Descriptive linguistics
- interested how the language is used at the present time, in the specific country, not comparing it to other languages or the past
- goal: a detailed description of the language
- DE SAUSSURE - broke language into its smallest components
- BLOOMFIELD - established descr.lin. as an official field of study, also gave precise instructions how to build a sentence, starting with phonemes > morphemes > words…

Generative linguistics
- NOAM CHOMSKY - universal grammar, LAD, Critical period, COMPETENCE vs PERFORMANCE
- infinite number of sentences with finite set of rules
- how normal people use language in everyday life with all the possible flaws, errors etc.

Systemic Linguistics
- HALLIDAY - language is used for a PURPOSE - to deliver meaning, to make CHOICES
- REGISTERS (field, tenor, mode) - how the speaker uses language differently in different circumstances - doctor x low worker, formal x informal, written x spoken

Question 8

The levels of structure in language and their linguistic units

Answer 8

1) phonetics (phone, allophone = speech sounds), phonology (phoneme) - the study of sound structure
2) morphology (morpheme), lexicology (lexeme) - the study of word structure
3) syntax (phrases, clauses, sentences) - the study of sentence structure
4) text linguistics - text structure (texts)
5) discourse analysis - discourse structure
6) semantics - meanings, mental presentation in our brains

Question 9

Features of language, features of linguistic signs)

Answer 9

FEATURES OF LANGUAGE:
De Saussure: language is a… Auto for sovoboar EC.
Auto-nomous system
For-m
SOVO - system of values (in) opposition
BOA(r) - based on analogy
Rational, economical, creative

Piaget: self regulating system

Hocket’s design features: DI-AR IN PRO-DU-CT
DIsplacement - we can talk about absent object
ARbitrariness - no connection between spoken and written form of words
INterchangebility - speaker vs hearer, roles can be changed easilly
PROductivity, creativity - language faculty allows for creation of thousands of sentences without prior knowledge
DUality - signs exist in opposition, no meaning on their own
CT - cultural transmission - The passing down of language from one generation to the next

FEATURES OF LINGUISTIC SIGNS:
icon - index - symbol
male - tie - o->

ASS & DISCO
Arbitrariness
Semanticity
Stability
DIStinctivness
COntrastiveness

Question 10

Functions of language, concepts of different scholars

Answer 10

FUNCTIONS OF LANGUAGE:

JAKOBSON:
Meta-pha-re emo-poe.

• METAlinguistic (used to speak about language) “What do you mean by ‘xxx’?”
• PHAtic: social connection without really communicating any meaningful information “how are you” “hello”
• REferential - sharing objective information “The earth is flat”
• EMOtive (expressive) “Yuck!” “I dont like this!”
• POEtic: rhetorical figures of speech or “flowery” language

HALLIDAY:
RePe InInIm.
- RE-gulatory - Language used to command, persuade, or request someone to do something, controlling their behavior.
- PE-rsonal - Language used to express personal opinions.”I’m happy,”
- IN-teractive - Language used to form relationships, express emotions. “I love you, mom,” “Thank you so much”
- IN-strumental - Language used to fulfill needs or desires, requests “I want,” “Can I have,” “I need”
- IM-aginative - Language used in storytelling and imaginative play.

Question 11

• Difference between children and adult learning the language

Answer 11

look into scripts - je tam toho tuna

GPT:
Critical Period Hypothesis:
- there is a specific time frame, when language acquisition is most effective. advantage in acquiring native-like pronunciation and grammatical structures.
- Adults: While adults can still learn languages proficiently, they might face challenges in achieving native-like pronunciation and may need more explicit instruction for certain grammatical rules.

Language Exposure:
Children: acquire languages through exposure and immersion, learn by listening to the language spoken around them, engaging in conversations, and participating in social interactions.
Adults: rely on formal instruction, language classes, or self-study materials.

Motivation:
Children: learn naturally as part of their social and cognitive development. Their motivation may be driven by social interaction, play, and the desire to communicate with others.
Adults: specific motivations, such as career advancement, travel, or personal interest.

Fear of Making Mistakes:
Children: Young children are often less inhibited by fear of making mistakes. They are willing to experiment with language and learn through trial and error.
Adults: Adults may be more self-conscious about making mistakes, which can sometimes impede their willingness to practice and communicate in the new language.

Question 12

First language learning, second language learning,

Answer 12

first - learning the native language at school to master the reading/writing.

second - purposeful and systematical learning of a second language ( school, courses, home-study for our own benefit…)

Question 13

First language acquisition, second language acquisition

Answer 13

First language acquisition
- from the time the child is in utero till he goes to school, (puberty, critical hypothesis)
- acquired from parents, tv, toys, surroundings…

second language acquisition
- we live (temporarily) in foreign country, we watch a movie in foreign language, listen to podcasts, read books
- not intentional

Question 14

The complexity of language in the learning process

Answer 14

• we learn it part at a time, children start with hearing, speaking to reading and writing
• we learn phonetics and phonology, then morphology, lexicology, syntax….
• we can focus at one field so we dont get overwhelmed

Question 15

((PHONOLOGICAL TYPOLOGY))

Answer 15

syllable timed x stress timed
tonal x non-tonal (intonational) languages

Question 16

((WORD ORDER TYPOLOGY))

Answer 16

SVO - czech, english
SOV - turkish, japanese
VOS - arabic

Question 17

((LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT OF BABIES))

Answer 17

Pre-linguistic Stage (0-12 months):
- Cooing (2-3 months): vowel-like sounds.
- Babbling (4-6 months): b, m, l - mama, lala, baba

• Single-Word or Holophrastic Stage (1 year): first recognizable words, usually referring to familiar people, objects, or actions.
• Single words are used to convey more complex meanings. For example, saying “milk” might mean “I want milk.”
• Two-Word Stage, Early Combinations (1year): Subject-Verb or Verb-Object structure.
• Telegraphic Speech (around 2years): Speech resembling telegraphic language.
• Increasing Vocabulary (2,5 years): The child’s vocabulary expands, and they start using three or more words in combinations. Simple Sentences - Children begin to construct simple sentences with basic grammatical structures. + Later Multi-Word Stage

Question 18

register theory

Answer 18

field, tenor, mode

Field:
Definition: Refers to the subject matter or the “what” of the communication. It focuses on the context, topic, or theme of the discourse.
Example: In a conversation about sports, the field would include terms, phrases, and vocabulary related to sports, such as “score,” “team,” “game,” etc.

Tenor:
Definition: Concerns the participants involved in the communication, the “who.” It looks at the social roles, relationships, and status of the people communicating.
Example: In a conversation between a teacher and a student, the tenor involves the roles and social dynamics between them. The language used may reflect the authority of the teacher and the position of the student.

Mode:
Definition: Relates to the channel or means of communication, the “how.” It examines whether the communication is spoken or written, formal or informal, and the medium through which it takes place.
Example: An email and a face-to-face conversation on the same topic represent different modes. The email is written, potentially more formal, while the face-to-face conversation is spoken and may involve non-verbal cues.