lexico-semantics all of it Flashcards
referential theory
1) REFERENTIAL theory of meaning
- according to this theory words are labels that label reality
referential approach
= seeks to formulate the essence of meaning by establishing the interdependence between
words and things/concepts they denotate
- attempts to equate a word’s meaning with the entities to which it refers – its REFERENTS
⦁ there is always a form (a word) that refers to some meaning
⦁ a word “chair” refers to a thing we are sitting on
⦁ there is a reference because the form stands for certain meaning
BUT – a major problem with this theory:
- not all words have counterpart entities in the real world
- one entity in the real word may be referred to by several words in a language and vice versa
+ meanings are not the same for everybody – everybody will imagine a different chair
as there are many kinds of different chairs - everybody will have a different mental picture
- according to this theory, words refer to what people imagine when they hear something
+ identity problem: two types of reference: intention X extension
- the president - extension denotes the set of objects that are described by the word
- “the president” refers to “Barrack” (for his friends) x “daddy” (for his children)
→ still the same guy: intention is different in his office and in private
→ semantically there are two Barracks, semantically they are not same - problem of identity
triangular sign model:
: one word can have only one meaning
→ when we speak about proper names like the Eiffel tower, there is no problem
because it is only single one in the world
formal theory
FORMAL theory of meaning
- introduced by Richard Montague: Montague grammar
= precise mathematical, strictly logical approach towards the meanings of words
(principles of understanding)
- establishes precise mathematical models of principles that are used to understand words
- set of formal rules: dictate the structures of language: words, sentences, paragraphs etc.
- according to this theory, we don’t acquire concrete meanings but principles of language
(we know the meanings because we know how the language works)
- there is little attention paid to semantics or pragmatics
- it describes how to form valid structures according to syntax and grammar
formal approach
= shows how we can acquire novel sentences we haven’t heard before→ we learn principles
functional theory
FUNCTIONAL (contextual) theory of meaning- developed by M. Halliday - examines language in application (how the language appears in reality, how it all functions)- structures are best analysed and understood by the functions they carry out- language as a communicative system- the meanings of language are not denoting only one thing separately, but the rule of similarity and abstraction works here - productive rule: one word denotes more things : cow (animal, person, meat) : cold (low temperature, a cold person - character)functional/contextual approach= considers language as a social semiotic system ⦁ e.g. why one linguistic form is more appropriate for a certain situation than another - semantic primitives= words that have the exact meaning in most other languages
: mother, father, son, daughter, eat etc.
- semantics = the meanings of words is conceptualised and conventionalised notion
- how a group of people living in similar environments perceives their reality which projects
on the way they speak
synonyms
⦁ SYNONYMY: different lexemes having a similar meaning (sameness of meaning in different forms)
= a word that shares the same denotation with another word
⦁ absolute synonymy
= absolute identity of all aspects of meaning(connotation, style, register)
- complete interchangeability = no change in truth value, communicative effect, and meaning
- extremely rare, almost non existing
- examples: everybody-everyone, fall-autumn, anyhow-anyway
⦁ cognitive synonymy
= require interchangeability in style, register, and connotation
- examples: die-pass away-kick the bucket (different in style)
⦁ plesionym
= almost synonyms but with a slight difference in denotational meaning
- examples: misty-foggy, swamp-fen-bog-marsh
⦁ near-synonyms
= very cole, but not identical in meaning (include plesionyms and cognitive synonyms)
- example: error-mistake, brook-stream, mist-fog
antonyms
⦁ ANTONYMY: different lexemes having an opposite meaning (opposition of meaning in different forms)
⦁ absolute = complementaries= contradictory meaning
- mutual exclusiveness feature
- example: married-single, alive-dead, open-shut
⦁ gradable: good= unmarked- positive X bad= marked- negative
⦁ non-gradable: may be used figuratively: He is more dead than alive
⦁ converse = relational = pairs of opposites where one cannot exist without the other
- mutually applied meanings
- examples: teacher-student, buy-sell, husband-wife, give-receive
⦁ gradable = the relative value of their meaning
- examples: old-young, small-big, hot-cold
⦁ directional: up-down, backward-forward, come-go, rise-fall
⦁ antipodal: north-south, east-west, top-bottom, black-white
⦁ counterpart: ridge-groove, hill-valley, mound-depression
⦁ reversive: appear-disappear, tie-untie, dress-undress
sense variation:
homonyms
⦁ Homonymy
= convergent sound development of two different words
= adoption of foreign words: form identical with already existing word
- happens by chance, no connection
examples: date: day-fruit, ball: sphere-dance, can: modal verb-container
partial homonyms:
homographs: identical form, different sound: bow: [bau]=bend-[bou]=weapon
homophones: different form, identical sound: [rait]: rite= ritual-right= correct
⦁ Polysemy
= the result of divergent semantic development (semantic change) within one word
- one word with interrelated meanings
examples: branch= on tree-part of a business organization
head= on the body-of the department-of a sentence
⦁ Underspecification
= when a word has vague, general and underspecified meanings
example: aunt= a female in a sibling-like relationship with one’s parent
- we can distinguish between maternalXpaternal, but in the end ‘aunt’
Hyponymy X Hyperonymy
Hyponymy X Hyperonymy
= hierarchical relation between nouns
hyperonym= generic term (superordinates)
hyponym= specific instance (subordinates)
: class of mammals→ a subclass of cats (mammal= hyperonm/cat=hyponym)
: colour→ red, violet=co-hyponyms
Meronymy X Holonymy
Meronymy X Holonymy
= semantic relation between a meronym= denoting part and holonym= denoting whole
: holonym: face→ meronym: parts of face- eyes, mouth, nose,..
: holonym: tree → meronym: parts of tree-branches, trunk,..
WORD MEANING:
grammatica l= the component of meaning recurrent in identical sets of individual forms
of different words
lexical = the meaning proper to the given word in all its forms and distributions
(concept behind a word)
each lexeme contains: a semantic nucleus= denotation
a semantic consociation= connotation
Semantic categorization
categorization = the ability to identify similarities and differences between entities and to group them
= a process in which ideas and objects are recognized, differentiated, and understood
= our ability to identify entities as members of groups
- before cognitive sciences started discussing the idea of how humans categorize,
elements of a category were based on Aristotelian logic
: classical categorization - definitional structure
= member of category fulfils a set of necessary and sufficient conditions for membership - no hierarchy, all the objects in one category are equal
- boundaries of each category were fixed and clear, with no grey area between them
- a bird could be described as “having feathers”, “laying eggs”, “being able to fly”
→ binary theory - objects/features marked either with + or - - however, wasn’t considered a good model of categorization
(because there are many different types of birds that cannot fly)
→ that’s why scholars like Eleanor Rosch put forward the theory of PROTOTYPES
prototype theory
PROTOTYPE THEORY
- formulated in the 1970s by Eleanor Rosch and George Lakoff
- grouping things based on prototypes – the basis for human development
prototype= a mental representation of the best representant of a category
- reflects the correlation features- category prototype= the most features
→some representants are “better”= more representative= highly prototypical
: instead of a definition-based model (bird – an animal with feathers which flies x penguin)
prototype theory considered a category like birds as consisting of different elements
which have unequal status: the categories are rooted in people’s experience
CLUSTER - no hierarch within a cluster
: similar words referring to various kinds of sounds can be put to a cluster
- rap, slap, tap, bang, clang, click - all in one cluster without any further organisation
HIERARCHY
example: head word = vehicle
in taxonomy more objects can be on the same level
- sled, bicycle, stagecoach (dostavník), boat, automobile
in the hierarchy such as the military organisation there are no same levels
- one rank is always higher than another one
network structures
network structures
- represent semantic relations between concepts
- the structures are often complicated schemes involving nodes and links between nodes
- lexicon in our own mind - sort of a mental dictionary where units are not separated
but connected into a huge web where one word is associated with others and other words
with others and thus compose a mental network - a web full of links
- this network is called semantic
- it influences our choice of vocab which is extremely quick
- not all words in our mental network have the same status - some are more typical words (words prototypes in a way) that we use more often (I, and, that of… )
- Semantic Network It’s like a mental web in your head that connects words and ideas.
- Complicated Schemes Think of it as a bunch of dots (words) connected by lines (links) in your mental web.
- Mental Dictionary: Instead of words being separate, they’re all connected in this web in your mind.
- Quick Vocabulary: This web helps you pick words super fast when you talk or think
- Important Word& Not all words are equal in this web. Some, like “I’ and ‘and; are like superstars because we use them a lot.
- Lexicalization (((and grammaticalization)))
LEXICALIZATION
the process of lexicalisation
= grammatical words in some cases become more lexical- denoting some content
example:
the preposition UP in the phrase “to up the ante”
→ it means to raise the ante
the word “asleep” is derived from old English - “on sleep”
→ so the preposition became the part of the lexical word asleep
conceptual metaphor
conceptual metaphor= one idea understood in terms of another (A is B): She smells like roses.
- Lakoff and Johnson, 1980
- according to Lakoff metaphors can be found in our everyday life, thoughts, and actions
- he wrote a work named Metaphors We Live By - explains his theory and gives examples:
: cold= low temperature X cold person= not connected to temperature, but to personal quality
examples: Love is a patient. This is a sick relationship. They have a strong, healthy marriage.
The marriage is dead. Ideas are people. He is the father of modern biology.
abstract idea(target domains) understood in terms of direct bodily experience(source domains)
= abstract human thought is embodied
lexical aspect
lexical aspect
= a grammatical category that expresses differences in the way time is presented in events
that means: Tense= location in time X Aspect= ways of presenting time within the event itself
Non-progressive: expressed in simple forms, uses only VERB
: Briony will do the crossword.
Progressive: expressed in continuous/progressive forms, uses BE+ ING
: Briony will be doing the crossword.
Perfective: uses have/has/had: I have enjoyed the movie.
Non-Perfective: without have/has/had: I enjoyed the movie.
The pattern of distribution of action through time= Aktionsart
- one-way non-resettable= action cannot be repeated
- one-way resettable= action can be repeated
- full cycle= describes two cycling states (turn on, turn off)
- gradient= contains adverbs of augmentation
- multiplex= repeated action in a certain time frame
- steady-state= continuous action in a certain time frame x completive aspect
verbs: state X occurrences: activities, accomplishments, achievements
aspectual system: a distinction between
: close-up view (stages of an event can be seen individually)
: view from the distance (a whole that has its beginning, middle, and end)
(((lexicalization))) and grammaticalization
GRAMMATICALIZATION
= linguistic process in which lexical words (verbs, nouns) are becoming grammatical words
- lexical words are losing some of their lexical properties: adapting some grammatical ones
example: auxiliary verbs
- over time they lose their lexical features and start functioning grammatically
- let us: in many cases lost its lexical meaning of allow us: has changed into a kind of auxiliary verb expressing suggestion
processes of grammaticalization:
Semantic bleaching = the loss of semantic content
going to → after grammaticalization loses the idea of motion or direction. - He is going to marry her.
spatial language
SPATIAL LANGUAGE
= a domain that focuses on the comprehension and production of spatial descriptions of objects and relations in an environment.
- a relatively small number of spatial terms used to localize ourselves or the entities around us
- native speakers do this automatically X for second language learners very problematic
- Melissa Bowerman= leading researcher in the area of language acquisition
- also dealt with the acquisition of spatial terms
: compared various languages
: important= distinctions that are in one language may not be in
iconicity
ICONICITY= the conceived similarity/analogy between the form of a sign and its meaning- in functional-cognitive linguistics, as well as in semiotics - especially onomatopoeic words are considered to be ICONICthe sound of those words is connected to what they mean: hissing, bubbling, tapping
- also sounds made (produced) by animals: meow, woof
language is created on the foundation of our perception of reality that projects on the way
language is formed by speakers
- found in all linguistics levels
- in both spoken and sign languages
- visual: some traffic signs - pedestrian crossing
Spatial language and iconicity:
The principle of “iconicity of contiguity” (linguistic proximity)
= assumes that forms that belong together semantically will occur closer together
morphosyntactically than forms that are semantically unrelated
mental lexical representations
- linguistic abilities of normal native speakers include knowledge of words of the language
- because there are so many words it is suggested that they are carefully organized in our mind
- in order to refer to such a complicated repertoire, some have compared it to a dictionary
“mental lexicon” = mental lexical representation
= a memory system in which a vast number of words, accumulated over the course of time,
has been stored - the investigation of how words are organized in the mind
- the possession of vocabulary forms the backbone of ability to communicate in a language
- it must be flexible and organized to look up the words extremely quickly
- word recognition takes less than 1/3 of a second
- the average adult reads at a rate of about 250 words per minute
- always updated - new words are added, new connections to existing words are made,
some words that are not used may be forgotten - human mental lexicon cannot be observed questions about how the lexicon is organized
lexical processing
Lexical processing involves recognizing, accessing, and retrieving words and their meanings from the mental lexicon during language comprehension and production. Key aspects include:
Word Recognition: Identifying individual words visually or auditorily.
Lexical Access: Accessing specific lexical information (meaning, grammar, phonology).
Lexical Retrieval: Recalling words from the mental lexicon for language production.
Semantic Processing: Understanding word meanings.
Orthographic Processing: Recognizing written word forms.
Phonological Processing: Recognizing and processing spoken word sounds.
Morphological Processing: Recognizing word structure, including prefixes and suffixes.
Lexical Ambiguity Resolution: Resolving multiple meanings through context and cues.
lexical change
LEXICAL CHANGE (stylistics)
- register: language variant based on its use in different social situations
- social dimension of the style:
Accent (varieties of pronunciation)
Dialect (varieties of grammar and vocabulary)
Standard: Received pronunciation (RP) Standard English
Non-standard: Regional Accents Regional Dialects (‘‘Cockney’; ‘Belfast’; and so on)
a dialect is a linguistic variety that is defined according to the user of language – it tells you things about their social and regional background
a register is defined according to the use to which language is being put. A register shows, through a regular, fixed pattern of vocabulary and grammar, what a speaker or writer is doing with language at a given moment.
Registers are often discussed in terms of three features of context:: field, tenor and mode.
field of discourse refers to the setting and purpose of the interaction,
tenor to the relationship between the participants in interaction
mode to the medium of communication (that is, whether it is spoken or written)
Discourse context governs the choice of style: register
Speech act theory
collocability
COLLOCATIONS= combinations of words that frequently occur together
: when one member of the collocation is used, the identity of the second member can be
predicted with a high level of probability
COLLOCABILITY= amount up to which a lexical item enters different collocations
Subtypes:
a) free collocations
: allow substitution of either of their elements without semantic change in the other elements (eat rice – eat cake – eat meat)
b) restricted collocations (phrasemes)
: one element is used in a figurative or specialized sense
- the meaning of one element being determined by its collocation with the other element
(blow a fuse – blow a tyre; raise a ship – raise a question – raise a child)
c) overlapping collocations
: collocations with synonyms that do not have the same collocative valency
(quench a fire – quench thirst / extinguish a fire - *extinguish thirst;
abnormal rainfall – exceptional rainfall / an abnormal child – an exceptional child)
d) delexical collocations (support verb constructions)
: a semantically vague, grammaticalized verb+a noun that carries the entire semantic content
(have a bath, make a mistake, do sb. a service, take a look, get a divorce, give a sigh)
e) grammatical collocations
: involve one element from an open class and one element from a closed class
- typically a preposition
- include various types of syntactic structures a lexical item combines with
(propose a plan – suggest a plan, propose to do sth. – *suggest to do sth.;
a clever child – an intelligent child, clever at mathematics – *intelligent at
lexical innovation
LEXICAL INOVATION (jen pro info)
feature of language: constant change and development
- especially in the lexical component of a language
new words are always being created: creation of new words is called COINAGE
There are several causes working together toward the need for lexical innovation:
1. the development of new objects and processes
2. the development of new analyses of reality
3. the development of new abstract concepts including new attitudes and values
4. the need for variety and expressivity
types of objects
Direct Object:
Definition: The direct object is the noun or noun phrase that directly receives the action of the verb.
Example: She read a book. (The noun “book” is the direct object.)
Indirect Object:
Definition: The indirect object is the noun or noun phrase that indicates the recipient or beneficiary of the action.
Example: He gave her a gift. (The noun “her” is the indirect object.)
Object of a Preposition:
Definition: A noun or pronoun that follows a preposition and completes its meaning.
Example: He sat on the chair. (The noun “chair” is the object of the preposition “on.”)
Object of a Gerund:
Definition: A noun or pronoun that functions as the direct object of a verb when the verb is in its gerund form (the -ing form).
Example: She enjoys swimming. (The gerund “swimming” has “she” as its object.)
modality
MODALITY
= semantic category which covers the notions of prediction, certainty, probability and possibility in terms of truth and the notions of volition, obligation, advisability, necessity, ability and permission
= the way language is used to express the speaker’s attitude, certainty, necessity, or permission regarding a statement or action. It involves the use of modal verbs, adverbs, or other linguistic devices to convey the speaker’s stance toward the likelihood, obligation, or desirability of an event.
- 2 types of modal meaning:
⦁ extrinsic = the speaker comments on the truth of the content of the clause (jistotní)
⦁ intrinsic = the speaker intervenes in the speech event to express tof obligation, permission (dispoziční) - realization of modal meaning:
⦁ verbal exponents (allow, beg, promise, wonder, be sure, can, shall/need,…)
⦁ non-verbal exponents (probable, possible, likely in constructions with dependant clause/part of NG)
functions of adverbs
FUNCTION OF ADVERBS (in a sentence/clause)
⦁ can modify any part of speech (about double, roughly half, almost all)
⦁ adverbial particle with phrasal verb: breathe out, give up, turndown
⦁ modifier/qualifier in AdjP, AdvP, PrepP, NP: fairly easy, very well, just the man
⦁ subject: Tomorrow will be too late.
⦁ direct object: They didn’t tell me why.
⦁ predicator/subject/object complement: He strode off. I’m through with you. He helped the old man across.
clause level: adjunct, disjunct, conjunct
Passive voice
Positivisation: from active voice to passive voice
⦁ Subject either omitted or dragged into a adjective introduced by a presentation.
Ex.: My friend John gave me(Oi) this book This book was given to me by my friend(Adj) John.
Passivisation: object in active-voice sentence subject in passive-voice sentence.
They(S) have appointed(P) Henry(O) head of rewards Henry(S) has been(Passive) appointed head(O) of rewards by them(Adjunct).
lexical aspect
lexical aspect
= a grammatical category that expresses differences in the way time is presented in events
that means: Tense= location in time X Aspect= ways of presenting time within the event itself
Non-progressive: expressed in simple forms, uses only VERB
: Briony will do the crossword.
Progressive: expressed in continuous/progressive forms, uses BE+ ING
: Briony will be doing the crossword.
Perfective: uses have/has/had: I have enjoyed the movie.
Non-Perfective: without have/has/had: I enjoyed the movie.
The pattern of distribution of action through time= Aktionsart
- one-way non-resettable= action cannot be repeated
- one-way resettable= action can be repeated
- full cycle= describes two cycling states (turn on, turn off)
- gradient= contains adverbs of augmentation
- multiplex= repeated action in a certain time frame
- steady-state= continuous action in a certain time frame x completive aspect
verbs: state X occurrences: activities, accomplishments, achievements
PROJECTION:
⦁ QUOTED SPEECH
⦁ QUOTED THOUGHT
Quoted speech:
Use of quotation marks
Alice said, “I will go to the store”
Preservation of original Language (Same grammar, pronouns and verb tense)
John said, “I am feeling happy today,” the quoted speech would be: John said, “I am feeling happy today.”
Reporting verbs (often introduced by verbs like said, asked, replied)
“It’s a beautiful day,” she exclaimed.
Quoted Thought
Original Thought: “I can’t believe we won the championship!”
Quoted Thought: John exclaimed, “I can’t believe we won the championship!”
Direct Representation (exact words or phrases as they would occur in a character’s mind)
Use of Italicization or Quotation Marks?
Preservation of original Language (Same grammar, pronouns and verb tense)
No Reporting Verbs (no verbs like “said” or “exclaimed”)
