module one key terms Flashcards
life chances
opportunities each individual has to improve the quality of life
power
the ability to direct or influence the behaviour of others
social control
the many ways in which our behaviour, thoughts and appearance are regulated by the rules, norms and laws of society
globalisation
the process through which the world is becoming increasingly interconnected as a result of increased trade and cultural exchange
culture
the way of life of a particular group or society
social change
the transition from one form of social arrangement, or type of society, to another
development
improvement in the social and economic conditions of life of a society or people
inequality
the uneven distribution of resources so that some people have more benefits and opportunities than others in a society
resistance
individual or group opposition to social control
traditional society
type of society based on an agricultural economy where behaviour is regulated by largely unchanging customs or beliefs
modernity
period in history or type of society that is characterised by the use of advanced technology, belief in science, innovation and economic progress
socialisation
processes through which people learn about the norms, rules and laws of society
social identity
persons sense of who they are based on their group membership
social structure
system of social institutions and patterned relations between large social groups
human agency
power people have to think for themselves and act in ways that shape their experiences and way of life
social integration
fitting into society
collective consciousness
a shared set of cultural beliefs, values, norms and morality which function to unite society
social solidarity
a feeling of community or social belonging which results in feeling a bond with others
biological analogy
the human body resembles society in that, as an effective totality, it is the sum of all its parts working together to ensure good health
over- deterministic
believing that everything that happens could not happen in any other way
capitalism
an economic and political system in which a country’s trade and industry are controlled by private owners for profit
infrastructure
the economic system
superstructure
all the cultural and social institutions that function to transmit capitalist ideology, especially the idea that the existence of wealth and poverty are justified
bourgeiosie
the socio-economic group that owns the means of production and is responsible for the organisation of capitalism
means of production
the resources required to manufacture a product; for example, capital for investment, raw materials, machinery and so on
labour power
the effort, skill and hours which the worker puts into the manufacture of the product
proletariat
the labouring or working class
social relations of production
the relationship between employers and workers
surplus value
the excess of value produced by the labour of workers over the wages they are paid
social class inequality
inequalities in income and wealth, political power, life chances, levels of education, health and so on between the richest and poorest groups in capitalist society
appropriation
dishonest and unethical seizure of value or profit by the capitalist class of something produced by the labouring class
bourgeois ideology
a set of ideas that originates with the capitalist class which attempts to convince members of society that inequality is natural or normal outcome and that those who succeed or fail in capitalist system deserve to do so
false class consciousness
being unaware that socio-economic position is caused by the organisation of the capitalist system
cultural zombies
workers who have been convinced by bourgeois ideology that they are responsible or their own fate and that they should uncritically accept their social position
status
social standing or the prestige attached to particular social roles
charismatic personality
somebody with a compelling personality who has the ability to influence the behaviour of others
gender inequality
refers to inequalities in wealth, pay, political power, access to certain types of jobs, and in the distribution of domestic tasks such as childcare and housework
patriarchy
male domination of society and the social institutions that comprise it
ethnocentrism
a tendency to see the experience of others in terms of one’s own culture. It often involves making unconscious negative judgements, because people assume that their cultural experience is ‘normal’ and all other experiences are ‘abnormal’
intersectionality
the acknowledgement that middle class white women are not as exploited or as unequal as women from working class and ethnic minority backgrounds, who may be held back by poverty, racism and religion
symbolic interaction
a social action theory that claims that identity is developed through interaction with others. A key feature of such interaction is the process of interpreting the symbolic behaviour of others, for example, their facial expressions and body language
symbol
a thing that represents or stands for something else, especially a material object representing something abstract. For example, language in the form of writing is symbolic of spoken sounds. The word ‘cat’ is symbolic of a general group of domesticated pet, whereas the word ‘Siamese’ is symbolic of a particular breed of cat
semiology (semiotics)
the sociological study of sign and symbols. Sociologists have used it to study the content of media, for example, some feminists argue that the frequent use by journalists of the word ‘girls’ instead of ‘women’ symbolises patriarchal subordination
social meanings
when we interpret the actions of others, we apply meaning to that action and respond accordingly
social actors
term used by social action theorists to describe people or individuals who freely enter into interaction with others
labelling theory
the idea that people come to identify and behave in ways that reflect how more powerful others label or stereotype them
dramaturgical approach
the idea that people’s day to day lives can be understood as resembling performers in action on a theatre stage.
impression management
the conscious or subconscious process in which people attempt to influence the perceptions of other people about a person, object or event
social capital
the collective value of all social networks (the value of knowing influential people) and the obligations that arise from these networks to do things for each other (for example, to return a favour)
cultural capital
the social, intellectual and cultural aspects of a person that contribute to their educational success or social mobility, for example, knowing how to ‘dress for success’
post-industrial
a stage in society’s development when the service sector of the economy generates more wealth than the industrial or manufacturing sector of the economy
consumerism
the preoccupation of society with the acquisition of consumer goods
conspicuous consumption
expenditure on, and consumption of, luxuries on a lavish scale in an attempt to enhance one’s prestige
nation-states
a sovereign state of which most of the citizens or subjects are united by factors which define a nation, such as language, possession of a territory with borders and/or common descent
meta-narratives
grand theories which aim to explain society and human behaviour
relativism
the view that there is no such thing as absolute truth and that all opinions and experiences have validity
post-truth
a situation in which expert opinion and facts are less influential in shaping public attitudes than emotion, faith and personal belief
individualism
being free from external pressures such as tradition and duty and being able to pursue one’s own interests (sometimes at the expense of others)
new age religion
a type of religion which aims to help people find spiritual fulfilment through practices such as meditation, healing and self-discovery
self-religions
new age religions which claim to improve self
new social movements
political movements, which are often radical, global in reach and disproportionately supported by young people and coordinated online
high modernity
the later stages of modern societies identified by Beck, associated with the manufactured risks to the ecology of the planet and high levels of individualization
manufactured risks
the risks produced by consumer demand for more consumer goods and the inability of capitalists to manufacture goods without risking the environment
individualisation
a social feature of late or postmodernity which encourages members of society to put the interests of themselves before the interests of the wider social group. It encourages selfishness rather than selflessness
risk society
Beck’s idea that technology used by capitalist societies has many negative consequences for humankind in term of pollution, new diseases and environmental destruction
liquid modernity
a term used by Bauman to describe the later stages of modernity, which he sees as characterised by uncertainty
reflexivity
the state of being able to examine one’s own feelings, reactions and motives for acting and being able to adjust one’s behaviour or identity accordingly
late capitalism
a term used by Marxists to describe the later stages of modern capitalist society, especially capitalism’s ability to exploit new global markets and to create new forms of labour in order to generate profit
monopoly
the exclusive possession or control of the supply of, or trade in, a commodity or service
oligopoly
a state of limited competition, in which a market is shared by a very small number of producers or sellers
