Module 7 - Memory Part 2

Question 1

The process of imagining the future uses which of the following?

A. A creative imagination

B. Long-term memory to predict what is the probable of the future

C. A high IQ; individuals with lower IQ are unable to do this

D. All of the above

Answer 1

B. Long-term memory to predict what is probable of the future

Question 2

The primacy effect is often attributed to _____________________.

A. Short-term memory

B. Long term memory

C. Sensory memory

D. Implicit memory

Answer 2

B. Long term memory

Question 3

The regency effect is attributed to ___________________.

A. Long term memory

B. Sensory memory

C. Working memory

D. None of the above

Answer 3

C. Working memory

• because the regency is at the end, so realistically, you heard the words not so long ago and it is therefore still in your short term memory (working memory)

Question 4

Sally begins to prepare her lunch at 12:00 pm and realizes that she can’t remember what she had for breakfast. This highlights a retrieval failure from?

A. Working memory

B. Short term memory

C. Long term memory

D. Sensory memory

Answer 4

C. Long term memory

Question 5

According to levels of processing theory, information encoded in terms of _____________ will be best remembered.

A. Sound

B. Meaning

C. Case

D. None of the above (depends on the retrieval cue)

Answer 5

B. Meaning

Question 6

Maryann is studying for her cognition class. She decides to rewrite her notes. Maryann is using which of the following to help her study?

A. Shallow levels of processing

B. Deep levels of processing

C. Encoding specificity

D. Transfer appropriate processing

Answer 6

A. Shallow levels of processing

Question 7

Craig is preparing to study for his lifespan development course and decides that he will generate examples for each of the terms so that he can better remember them. He is using _________.

A. Shallow levels of processing

B. Deep levels of processing

C. Encoding specificity

D. Transfer appropriate processing

Answer 7

B. Deep levels of processing

Question 8

We tend to remember the first and last thing we are introduced to; this is referred to as the _____________.

Answer 8

Serial position

Question 9

The best summary of the conclusions of Baddeley’s diving experiment is that memory is best ______________.

A. Initially learned on land.

B. Initially learned under water regardless of testing condition

C. Initially learned on land and then tested under water or initially learned on water and then tested on land.

D. Initially learned on land and then tested on land or initially learned under water and tested under water

Answer 9

D

Question 10

Amnesiac patients like Clive Wearing and H.M. Demonstrate _______________.

A. Impaired long-term memory, intact short-term memory

B. Impaired short-term memory; intact long term memory

C. Impaired short- term and long-term memory

D. Intact short term and long term memory

Answer 10

A.

Question 11

Which type of memory specififcally involves the experience of “mental time travel”?

A. Procedural

B. Episodic

C. Semantic

D. Implicit

Answer 11

B. Episodic

Question 12

The formation of very durable long-term memories specifically involves which brain structure?

A. Amygdala

B. Hippocampus

C. Temporal lobe

D. Thalamus

Answer 12

B. Hippocampus

Question 13

While studying for her environmental science class, Shirley tries to make connections with the material and apply it to other contexts. Conversely, Marla is studying the same material by simply re-reading her notes. The two study techniques differ by ______.

A. Their motivation

B. The amount of time they’re spending on it

C. Their levels of processing

D. The amount of short term memory activation

Answer 13

C. Their levels of processing

Question 14

If Shirley and Maria’s environmental science test is an essay test, which student will most likely perform better and have better recall?

A. Shirley (connected the material with examples0

B. Marla (recopied her notes)

Answer 14

A. Shirley

Question 15

Every day in psychology class, Riley sits next to a student that brings a strong cup of coffee. The smell is very noticeable to Riley. When it comes time to take the test, Riley notices that the student with coffee is late. While taking the test, Riley struggles remembering a difficult term but is pleasantly surprised when the coffee student shows up with her usual cup of coffee. After smelling the coffee, the answer suddenly returns to her. Having the coffee smell present during both encoding and testing may have helped due to ______.

A. Transfer-appropriate processing

B. State-dependent learning

C. Encoding specificity

D. Long-term potentiation

Answer 15

C. Encoding specificity

Question 16

You wake up in a sad mood. This persists all day, and you realize that it is very easy for you to think of several negative experiences that have happened to you in the last month, which also created a sad mood. Your ability to more easily recall those sad events while you are in a sad mood exemplifies ______.

Answer 16

State-dependent memory

Question 17

Your friend Carla is getting ready to go to the Bahamas for a beach vacation. You have never been to the beach but you have a good idea of what her vacation will be like. This is an example of which type of memory?

A. Episodic

B. Declarative

C. Gist-type

D. Semantic

Answer 17

D. Semantic

Question 18

Knowing how to ride a bike is an example of ______________ memory, but remembering your dad teaching you how to ride a bike is an example of ___________ memory.

Answer 18

1. Implicit
2. Episodic

Question 19

Classical conditioning is an example of which type of memory?

A. Episodic

B. Implicit

C. Declarative

D. Semantic

Answer 19

B. Implicit

Question 20

How can long term memory help with planning for the future?

Answer 20

Your past memories of things help you to know what the future entails. For example, if you are going to the movies, you now know hoe to dress, when to get there and how much money to bring with your past knowledge of going to the movies.

Question 21

what is a fundamental distinction between short term and long term memory?

Answer 21

While short term memory retains the specific physical details of the sensory stimulus first used to encode the information, long term memory retains the abstracted semantic information, without specific physical details.

Not always the case
- certain memorable and oft-repeated details can be stored in long-term memory.

Ex: STM —> you remember your mother saying “I really hate cucumbers. They make my throat hurt” specifically word for word because she just said it

LTM —> you remember that your mother said she didn’t like cucumbers because they hurt her throat but you can’t repeat what she said word for word

Question 22

How is information typically stored in long-term memory?

A. In terms of its sound

B. In terms of its meaning

C. In terms of its visual appearance

D. In terms of its emotional conten

Answer 22

B. In terms of its meaning

Question 23

Accurately remembering information from a previous chapter in this book depends on which type of memory?

A. Short term

B. Sensory memory

C. Long term

D. Factual memory

Answer 23

C. Long term memory

Question 24

What is amnesia?

Answer 24

Severely impaired long term memory capacities, typically due to trauma or brain damage

Question 25

What is retrograde amnesia?

Answer 25

Difficulty remembering information from before the onset of amnesia

Question 26

What is anterograde amnesia?

Answer 26

After the onset of amnesia, the person has difficulty remembering any new information that they encounter.

Question 27

Who is patient HM and how was he important to the search of memory?

Answer 27

Patient who was studied for about 50 years. Suffered trauma young and the doctors removed his hippocampus. Other brain regions were also removed.

His intelligence and cognition were intact. He knew who he was and remembered his past.

He seemed unable to form any new long term memories. His short term memory appeared intact.

Proof that the two types of memories rely on different brain mechanisms.

He had anterograde amnesia

Question 28

Who is the patient Clive Wearing and what were the findings on him?

Answer 28

Had retrograde amnesia. Could not remember his past. He still remembered though how to speak, play the piano, basic facts about the world and the proper way to behave in it.

Also had anterograde amnesia. Could not make new long term memories.

Question 29

What is the gold standard of neuropsychological evidence for different mechanisms?

Answer 29

Double dissociation.

Each function can be shown to be preserved while the other is compromised.

Question 30

What is the dissociation on damage to the hipocampus?

Answer 30

Damage to the hippocampus will give rise to difficulties recalling or encoding information into long term memory while preserving short term memory, but damage to other cortical regions involved in short, or working memory processing will selectively damage short term memory processes while preserving long term memory functioning

Question 31

What task is used to detect onset Alzheimer’s and how to people with Alzheimer’s do on this task?

Answer 31

Short term memory tasks like the delayed match-to-sample tasks used to assess working memory.

Patients with the disease perform worse at this task and show less connectivity between the prefrontal lobe and the hippocampal regions

Question 32

What is elaborative rehearsal?

Answer 32

A technique for storing information in long term memory that involves elaborating on the meaning of the information.

Ex: instead of just repeating your notes, you focus on the meaning of things and try to make examples.

Question 33

What is the serial position effect?

Answer 33

Position of info will impact how well you remember it.

Primacy effect —> earlier words
- because you repeated them at the beginning to remember them

Regency effect —> last words
- because they are still present in your short-term memory

Question 34

What is the level processing theory first proposed by Craik and Tulving?

Answer 34

Depth of meaning during processing determines how likely an item is to be recalled from long term memory.

Which means that the more the information is processed on a deeper level, the more easily it will be recalled.

For example:
In three tasks, the one most easily recalled will be the one where people have to fill in the blanks and produce the answer themselves more than the task where they must simply answer a question.

Question 35

What are the three stages to memory?

Answer 35

Encoding

Storage

Retrieval

Question 36

What were the findings of the research by Morris where patient were presented with words using the rhyme and sentence conditions of Craik and Tulving, but adding a cued-call test?

Answer 36

Morris found that
- ps performed best on the free-recall task for items that had been deeply processed

• ps showed increased memory for shallow processed words if the test matched the learning phase.
• ps performed better in the cued-recall task when they had encoded words based on rhyming.

The level of processing was not consistently helpful

Question 37

What is the effect called transfer-appropriate processing found by Morris?

Answer 37

An account for which information is remembered in long term memory that emphasizes a match in form between when the information is initially encoded and when it is retrieved

Demonstrates that the depth of the encoding is not the sole determining factor in what is remembered.

Question 38

What is encoding specificity?

Answer 38

A principle in long term memory retrieval in which a match in condition between encoding and retrieval facilitates recall

Ex: learning a list of words underwater —> better recall if you have to repeat them underwater than on land

Question 39

How it the benefit of memory when testing and learning match called?

Answer 39

Context-dependent memory

Question 40

Research supports that when our internal states or moods are congruent, we additionally have improved memory. What is this term called?

Answer 40

State-dependent memory

Question 41

Having external or internal cues present while trying to remember information that was present during encoding that information leads to more successful retrieval. What is this phenomenon called?

A. Encoding specificity

B. State-dependent specificity

C. Recall success

D. Retrieval specificity

Answer 41

A. Encoding specificity

Question 42

Imagine that you are in your living room when you get a craving for ice cream. You get up, walk into your kitchen, and suddenly can’t remember why you’re in there. Deciding not to worry about it, you walk back into the living room. Once you’re back in the living room, you remember that you wanted ice cream! This improved recall in the living room compared to the kitchen would exemplify which of the following?

A. Transfer-appropriate processing

B. Context-dependent memory

C. State-dependent memory

D. Encoding transfer

Answer 42

B. Contest-dependent memory

Question 43

What is the spacing effect?

Answer 43

A benefit in long term memory when information is repeated over spaced out intervals.

Ex: it is more effective for an exam to review the material multiple times in a spaced out fashion

Question 44

What were the findings of Cepeda et al. On the spacing effect?

Answer 44

It is best to space information around 10-20% of the interval at which it will need to later be retrieved.

Ex: if you are taking an exam in a week, it makes sense to space study sessions with about a day between them. In a month —> every three or five days

Question 45

What is the testing effect?

Answer 45

A long term memory benefit that occurs when people retrieve information on their own rather than observing it passively.

Question 46

What is explicit (or declarative) memory?

Answer 46

Memory for all the information that can be verbally reported.

Includes semantic and episodic memory

It includes all of the information we know about the word that we can describe or “declare”

Question 47

What is the difference between episodic and semantic explicit memory?

Answer 47

Episodic memory
- refers to the memory of events that happened directly to us in our life and that we are able to recall in sequence with sensory imagery, a phenomenon called mental time travel.

semantic memory
- memory that only consists of information, without the ability to recall sensory details of an experience.

Ex: the meaning of words, your address, someone’s name.

Many memories begin as episodic and then transform to semantic memory over time.

Question 48

What is the neurological basis of the differences between semantic and episodic memory?

Answer 48

A different network was activated when participants listened to two different types if recording.

Semantic memory
- frontal and parietal libes

Episodic memory
- occipital and temporal lobes

Question 49

According to research by Levine et al. (2004), when we recall episodic and personally relevant events, which area of the brain is relatively more active than when we remember semantic information?

A. Frontal lobes

B. Parietal lobes

C. Occipital lobes

D. Corpus callosum

Answer 49

C. Occipital lobes

Question 50

What is implicit memory?

Answer 50

Memory that is encoded, stored and retrieved. It is not information you are consciously aware of.

procedural memory
- learned abilities to perform some automatic behavioural action such as walking, swimming or riding a bike.

another type of implicit memory is prejudice
- inclination to automatically, unconsciously, judge something or someone negatively or positively based on past experiences, even when those previous experiences are outside of conscious awareness.

Question 51

What is the familiarity effect?

Answer 51

People will often rate something, like a picture or music, more favourably if they have encountered it before than if they haven’t.

Question 52

What were the findings of the propaganda effect from Begg and al. ‘s research?

Answer 52

People who were presented with statements they had heard before were more likely to rate them as true compared with statements they had never heard.

This was true even if they had previously been told the original statements were untrue!

Question 53

What kind of memory is conditioning?

Answer 53

Implicit memory

Question 54

With which areas of the brain does implicit memory seem to be associated with ?

Answer 54

Areas outside of hippocampus, but still within the limbic system.

AMYGDALA
- located in temporal lobes.

Question 55

Who is patient S.M and what were the findings? (Damage to amygdala)

Answer 55

Bilateral amygdala damage.

Absence of fear. Struggles to recognize fear in others’ facial expressions.

Question 56

What is the durability of implicit memory?

Answer 56

People rarely forget how to do the things that are in this memory, even people with amnesia. Ex: HM patient was taught over multiple sessions how to do a task and he progressively got better at it, even if he had no memory of ever trying it before.

Question 57

What two primary sites have been identified as participating in the long term storage?

Answer 57

consolidation
- synaptic consolidation
———— long-term potentiation (LTP)

systems consolidation

Question 58

What is consolidation?

Answer 58

The process of making memories durable, and in some cases, permanent.

Question 59

What is synaptic consolidation?

Answer 59

Changes at the synapses between neurons that lead to long term storage of memories

long-term potentiation

Question 60

How does long term potentiation occur?

Answer 60

A receiving neuron becomes more likely to fire over time, based on the same number of incoming neurotransmitters.

1. The sending neuron releases more neurotransmitters
2. Receiving neuron develops more receptor sites for the neurotransmitters to bind with.

Question 61

What is systems consolidation?

Answer 61

A process of making long term memories more durable based on connections between cortical areas; thought to be orchestrated by the hippocampus

Can lead to permanent memories that last a lifetime.

BUT much slower process, taking days, weeks or even years.

Question 62

What could be the role of the hippocampus in systems consolidation?

Answer 62

1. Hippocampus initially stores memories and then moves them to the cortex as a more permanent form of memory.
2. Memory is not stored in the hippocampus at all, but that its role is to coordinate storage in the cortex.

Question 63

Explain the process called hippocampal relay in systems consolidation?

Answer 63

Phenomenon where sequences of brain activity in the hippocampus that occurred during the behavioural activity are repeated or “replayed”, in sequence after the event.

Proposed as a mechanism in systems consolidation