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Psychology 100 > Module 7 > Flashcards

Module 7 Flashcards

Educational Psychology

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1
Q

What is the difference between learning and innate responses?

A

Learning is when behavior changes as a result of experience, while innate responses are inborn.

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2
Q

True or False? Reflexes are innate.

A

False, reflexes can be learned or innate.

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3
Q

Can reflexes be changed by novel situations?

A

Yes, reflexes can be conditioned to occur in response to novel situations.

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4
Q

What is a stimulus?

A

Anything in the environment that is

  1. Detectable
  2. Measurable
  3. Can evoke a response or behavior
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5
Q

What is a response?

A

A behavioral consequence of a stimulus

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6
Q

True or False? Unconditional stimuli and responses are innate.

A

True

ex. A dog salivating at food

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7
Q

What is Pavlovian conditioning?

A

The change of neutral stimuli into conditional stimuli that predict the occurrence of unconditional stimuli and produce a conditional response

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8
Q

What types of conditioning results in excitatory conditioning?

A

Short-delayed, long-delayed, and trace conditioning

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9
Q

What types of conditioning results in inhibitory conditioning?

A

Simultaneous and backward conditioning

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10
Q

What can often be the result of conditioning?

A

Superstitions

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11
Q

True or False? Taste aversion learning is considered a special case of Pavlovian conditioning.

A

True

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12
Q

What is taste aversion learning?

A

We eat a food, several hours later we experience illness. The next time the food is encountered, not only do you want to avoid that food, quite often people report feeling ill all over again.

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13
Q

True or False? Once extinct, Pavlovian relationships cannot recover.

A

False, Pavlovian relationships can spontaneously recover.

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14
Q

True or False? Conditioned inhibition is not a kind of Pavlovian conditioning.

A

False, conditioned inhibition is a kind of Pavlovian conditioning.

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15
Q

What is conditioned inhibition?

A

Learning about signals related to safety (the absence of an aversive stimulus)

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16
Q

What is evaluative conditioning?

A

Relating our positive and negative experiences to neutral stimuli in the environment and shaping the way we emotionally feel toward things based on our experiences

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17
Q

By whom is evaluative conditioning often exploited by?

A

Advertising companies

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18
Q

What is the difference between stimulus generalization and stimulus discrimination?

A

They are opposites.
Stimulus generalization helps us generalize what we’ve learned to similar circumstances and stimulus discrimination helps us be more discerning about specific responses.

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19
Q

What is higher-order conditioning?

A

When a neutral stimulus is paired with a conditional stimulus we have already learned so that the new neutral stimulus elicits the same conditional response

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20
Q

Why was John B. Watson an influential figure in the history of psychology and which study made him impactful?

A

Because of his views about the extent to which conditioning shapes children into the people they eventually become as adults

The “Little Albert” study conducted by him and Rosalie Rayner

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21
Q

What is systematic desensitization?

A

A therapeutic tool that uses the principles of Pavlovian conditioning to treat phobic responses

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22
Q

What is operant (instrumental) conditioning?

A

A kind of learning that explains how we learn about the consequences of our behavior, and therefore, what to do (and what not to do) in certain circumstances

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23
Q

What is E. L. Thorndike famous for?

A

His foundational work on operant conditioning with cats in puzzle boxes and establishing the law of effect

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24
Q

Who founded radical behaviorism?

A

B. F. Skinner

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25
Q

How did Skinner’s work on operant conditioning describe ANTECEDENTS?

A

Anything in the physical environment that we can detect and tells us something about the consequences of our actions

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26
Q

How many types of contingencies between responses and their consequences are there?

A

4

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27
Q

What are the types of contingencies between responses and their consequences?

A

Positive reinforcement
Negative reinforcement
Positive punishment
Negative punishment

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28
Q

What is reinforcement?

A

When a behavior is increased

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29
Q

What is punishment?

A

When a behavior is decreased

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30
Q

What is positive (reinforcement/punishment)?

A

When a consequence is something being added

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31
Q

What is negative (reinforcement/punishment)?

A

When a consequence is something being removed

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32
Q

Name 2 consequences of negative reinforcement.

A

Escape conditioning and avoidance conditioning

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33
Q

What is the preferred operant process and why?

A

Positive reinforcement because it has longer-lasting effects on behavior and it can be used to direct a person or animal to a “correct” response

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34
Q

What should be used as a last resort and why?

A

Punishment because it can lead to a host of negative outcomes

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35
Q

What are the 3 behavioral effects of operant extinction?

A

Extinction burst (Temporary increase in frequency+duration+intensity of responding)
Emotional and aggressive responding
Eventual cessation of responding

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36
Q

What are reinforcer tests?

A

Tests that can determine whether a specific consequence is a reinforcer or a punisher
They are especially useful for evaluating secondary reinforcers.

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37
Q

What are ratio schedules?

A

Deliver reinforcers after a specific number of responses

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38
Q

What are interval schedules?

A

Deliver reinforcers after at least two responses and a specified amount of time
The first response starts a timer, and the next response after the timer finishes produces a reinforcer.

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39
Q

What is the most effective consequence schedule and why?

A

Intermittent (variable) reinforcement is the most effective consequence schedule at creating long-term behavioral change.

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40
Q

True or False? Pavlovian and operant conditioning often occur simultaneously.

A

True

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41
Q

What is the difference between Pavlovian and operant conditioning?

A

In Pavlovian conditioning, the unconditional stimulus will occur regardless of our behavior, while in operant conditioning, the consequence is dependent on the production of the behavior.

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42
Q

What is latent learning?

A

A type of learning that has happened but hasn’t had an opportunity to be demonstrated

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43
Q

Who demonstrated latent learning and with which experiment?

A

Edward C. Tolman’s experiments with rats’ learning of cognitive maps: rats learned maze layouts, but their learning wasn’t demonstrated until they were motivated to run through the maze.

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44
Q

Who demonstrated social learning and with which experiment?

A

Albert Bandura

Kindergarten students’ tendency to imitate adults who modeled “beating up” a toy called a Bobo doll

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45
Q

Name a biological constraint that exists on learning.

A

Biological preparedness to learn specific relationships

ex. Certain phobias

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46
Q

What is learned helplessness?

A

Experiencing an aversive situation you can’t control prevents you from learning to control other aversive situations by making you think that your actions are pointless or ineffective.

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47
Q

What is learning?

A

Change in behavior due to experience

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48
Q

True or False? Reflexes are the basis for learning in operant conditioning.

A

False

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49
Q

What is the type of learning associated with the following example?

An event signals that behavior will have a specific consequence.

A

Instrumental (operant) conditioning

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50
Q

What is the type of learning associated with the following example?

An initially unimportant event signals an important event.

A

Pavlovian (classical) conditioning

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51
Q

What is the type of learning associated with the following example?

We learn what to do by watching someone else respond and earn something good.

A

Social learning

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52
Q

What is an unconditional stimulus?

A

A type of stimulus in Pavlovian conditioning in which a biologically important event requires no conditioning to affect our behavior

ex. Food

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53
Q

What is an unconditional response?

A

A type of response in Pavlovian conditioning in which a biologically important response occurs because of an unconditional stimulus

ex. Produced salivation in dog

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54
Q

What is an conditional stimulus?

A

An event in Pavlovian conditioning that requires learning to be meaningful and is only meaningful because the event tells us something about the unconditional stimulus

ex. Laboratory coat

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55
Q

What is an conditional response?

A

A learned response that occurs to the conditional stimulus in preparation for the unconditional stimulus

ex. Produced salivation in dog for expected food

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56
Q

What is the order of classical conditioning events from what happens first after learning has taken place to what happens last?

A

Conditional stimulus > conditional response > unconditional stimulus > unconditional response

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57
Q

True or False? The conditional stimulus is informative when it occurs after the unconditional stimulus.

A

False, the conditional stimulus is informative when it occurs BEFORE the unconditional stimulus.

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58
Q

True or False? The conditional response never occurs after the unconditional stimulus.

A

True

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59
Q

What is excitatory conditioning?

A

When a conditional response should develop when a conditional stimulus precedes an unconditional stimulus

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60
Q

What is the most effective excitatory conditioning procedure?

A

Short-delayed conditioning

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61
Q

What is short-delayed conditioning?

A

The unconditional stimulus occurs within a few seconds of the start of the conditional stimulus.
ex. Thunderclap heard shortly after you see lightning

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62
Q

What is long-delayed conditioning?

A

The unconditional stimulus occurs after the conditional stimulus has been there for a while.
ex. Tornado warning sirens being heard or the sky turning green or black minutes before you see the tornado

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63
Q

What is trace conditioning?

A

The unconditional stimulus occurs minutes or hours after the conditional stimulus has stopped.
ex. Eating gas station sushi hours before feeling the effects of salmonella

64
Q

True or False? Food is the only stimulus for which events in trace conditioning seem to have a relation when being so far apart.

A

True

65
Q

What is inhibitory conditioning?

A

Conditioning in which a conditional response is suppressed

66
Q

What is simultaneous conditioning?

A

The unconditional stimulus occurs with the start of the conditional stimulus.
ex. Hearing thunder at the same time you see lightning

67
Q

What is backward conditioning?

A

The unconditional stimulus occurs a few seconds before the start of the conditional stimulus.
ex. Hearing thunder before you see lightning, then the lightning just tells you that thunder won’t occur.

68
Q

What is the order of Pavlovian conditioning components for backward conditioning?

A

Unconditional stimulus > unconditional response > conditional stimulus

69
Q

What are the steps to maximizing conditioning?

A
  1. Present the conditional stimulus before the unconditional stimulus.
  2. Present the unconditional stimulus almost immediately after the conditional stimulus.
  3. Repeatedly present the unconditional stimulus after the conditional stimulus.
70
Q

True or False? Repeated pairings are necessary in conditioned emotional response procedures

A

False, repeated pairings are NOT necessary in conditioned emotional response procedures

71
Q

What is the disadvantage of simultaneous conditioning?

A

It does not reliably produce excitatory conditioning.

72
Q

True or False? Taste aversion learning mostly occurs with new foods.

A

True

73
Q

Why does taste aversion learning not occur with familiar food?

A

Because we’ve safely eaten them many times before without getting sick. With new flavors, all we know about them is that they made us sick.

74
Q

What is the response that indicates that flavor aversion learning is occurring for cancer patients?

A

Anticipatory vomiting and nausea

75
Q

What are the components of ​Garcia and Koelling’s study on flavor conditioning with rats?

A

Unconditional stimulus: Irradiation (x-rays)
Conditional stimulus: Taste of sweet water
Unconditional and conditional responses: Nausea

76
Q

What is extinction?

A

A conditional stimulus loses some associative strength when it is presented without the unconditional stimulus (laboratory coat without food) and results in an increasingly weaker conditional response .

77
Q

What is spontaneous recovery?

A

When the conditioned stimulus alone elicits the conditioned response after extinction and a break without the signal or what’s signaled

78
Q

What is safety signal learning?

A

Presenting other stimuli (safety signals) associated with fear-inducing stimuli to indicate that the fear-inducing stimuli is no longer dangerous i.e. teach the person to no longer be afraid of the fear-inducing stimuli by having nothing happen

79
Q

True or False? Safety signal learning can be applied to everyone.

A

False, safety signal learning is impaired in those with PTSD.

80
Q

What are conditioned inhibitors?

A

Safety signals (lights and tones)

81
Q

What are conditioned excitors?

A

Fear-inducing stimuli

82
Q

Unfortunately, participants with PTSD did not learn that the purple triangle was a safety signal and produced more startle responses to the purple triangle and blue square combination than participants without PTSD. What did Jovanovic and colleagues conclude as a result?

A

PTSD may be a fear conditioning disorder.

83
Q

True or False? Stimulus generalization was used by Jovanovic and colleagues in their study of safety signal learning.

A

False, stimulus DISCRIMINATION (purple triange(safe) vs blue square(danger)) was used by Jovanovic and colleagues in their study of safety signal learning.

84
Q

Sara really likes the songs “Werewolves of London” by Warren Zevon and “Sweet Home Alabama” by Lynyrd Skynyrd. When she first heard Kid Rock’s “All Summer Long,” she immediately started singing the words to “Werewolves of London” over the chorus. Why did Sara think of the lyrics to the old song when she heard the similar melody of the new song?

A

Stimulus generalization

85
Q

After developing a fear of the white rat, Little Albert also exhibited fear responses to other white objects that had not been paired with loud noise. This illustrates which phenomenon associated with classical conditioning?

A

Stimulus generalization

86
Q

True or False? Little Albert generalized his fear to all white furry objects.

A

False
While Little Albert became scared of objects similar to the furry rat, he did not generalize his fear to some white objects such as Watson’s hair, Watson in a white Santa mask, and cotton wool.

87
Q

True or False? Little Albert and his mother left the university after they extinguished his fear.

A

False, Little Albert and his mother left the university before they could extinguish his fear.

88
Q

True or False? Despite not receiving the planned systematic desensitization, Little Albert lived a relatively normal life.

A

True

89
Q

Which researcher influenced Watson’s approach to psychology?

A

Ivan Pavlov

90
Q

What is the law of effect?

A

Behaviors that yielded satisfying consequences are more likely to recur (stamping in)
Behaviors that result in discomfort are less likely to be repeated (stamping out)

91
Q

What is stamping in?

A

We associate a situation with behavior when that behavior leads to something pleasant.

92
Q

What is stamping out?

A

We do not associate a situation with behavior when that behavior leads to something unpleasant.

93
Q

According to Thorndike, his cats learned in their puzzle box experiment: “In the presence of a pedal in a puzzle box, press it, and get fish.”

A

False, only behaviors and not consequences.
According to Thorndike, his cats learned in their puzzle box experiment: “In the presence of a pedal in a puzzle box, press it.”

94
Q

What are consequences?

A

Stimuli that can increase or decrease the probability of future behavior

95
Q

What is the “dead man test”?

A

A term used to help define behavior: If a dead man can do it, it is not behavior.

96
Q

What is the reinforcement contingency procedure associated with the following statement?

Greg annoys his brother and gets pinched and subsequently stops annoying him.

A

Positive punishment

97
Q

What is the reinforcement contingency procedure associated with the following statement?

Amaya washes her hands before dinner to avoid getting sick and continues to wash her hands before other meals.

A

Negative reinforcement

98
Q

What is the reinforcement contingency procedure associated with the following statement?

Connor throws a tantrum at the store and gets a chocolate bar; then he throws more tantrums in the store.

A

Positive reinforcement

99
Q

What is the reinforcement contingency procedure associated with the following statement?

Luna argued with her parents and had her phone taken away and subsequently stopped arguing with her parents.

A

Negative punishment

100
Q

What is operant extinction?

A

A procedure in which a consequence previously followed behavior but now no longer does. As a result, the behavior is less likely to occur in the future without that consequence.

101
Q

True or False? Both escape and avoidance, forms or negative punishment, decrease the likelihood of the response in the future.

A

False

Both escape and avoidance, forms of negative REINFORCEMENT, increase the likelihood of the response in the future.

102
Q

What is escape?

A

A situation in which the aversive stimulus is already present and a response REMOVES or stops the unpleasant stimulus

103
Q

What is avoidance?

A

A situation in which the aversive stimulus is not currently present but will occur unless you produce a response to cancel (or PREVENT) the unpleasant event

104
Q

What is an antecedent stimulus?

A

What happens before a behavior/event such that it caused it

105
Q

Darnell likes to watch YouTube videos. YouTube used to have no commercials, but now Darnell has to watch at least five commercials every time he wants to watch a 3-minute video. He doesn’t like commercials, and he rarely ever watches YouTube videos anymore. Which operant process is responsible for this change in Darnell’s behavior?

A

Positive punishment

106
Q

What is partial reinforcement extinction effect?

A

Behavior exposed to a continuous reinforcement schedule will stop faster without reinforcement than behavior exposed to an intermittent reinforcement schedule

107
Q

Janie had tantrums before bedtime, and her parents tried to quiet her down. Then Janie’s parents stopped attending to her tantrums when they put her to bed. Six months later, Janie no longer exhibits tantrums. Which operant process is responsible for this change in Janie’s behavior?

A

Extinction

108
Q

What is shaping?

A

Selecting and reinforcing more complex responses that look like the response you want while extinguishing simpler forms of the target response

109
Q

Suppose that I wanted to teach a dog how to ride a skateboard. What operant conditioning method would I use to teach this new behavior if I reinforce responses that get closer to skateboarding and extinguish previous responses further away from skateboarding?

A

Shaping

110
Q

Shariq’s father counted that he threw rocks 4 times on Monday (for a baseline). Starting Tuesday, Shariq’s father reprimanded him every time he threw rocks. Then Shariq threw rocks 10 times on Tuesday after being reprimanded. Although Shariq’s father thinks that reprimands could be _______, it would appear, based on Shariq’s behavior, the reprimands are actually acting as _______ for rock throwing.

A

Positive punishment, positive reinforcement

111
Q

What are primary reinforcers?

A

(Unconditioned) Reinforcers that are not learned; they naturally affect the responses they follow and include stimuli/events needed to maintain life
Positive: food, water, air, warmth when cold, and sleep
Negative: heat, pain

112
Q

What are secondary reinforcers?

A

(Conditioned) Reinforcers that influence responses because they signal or have been associated with a primary reinforcer
Not universal since they depend quite a bit on what has already been learned

113
Q

What are generalized conditioned reinforcers?

A

Objects traded for several other reinforcers

114
Q

True or False? A stimulus that is a reinforcer for you right now may not function as one for you later.

A

True

115
Q

Why are generalized conditioned reinforcers more robust?

A

Because they may be tied to primary/secondary reinforcers and they don’t lose their power to reinforce behavior

116
Q

Which type of positive reinforcers is least likely to temporarily lose its reinforcing capacity even though one has “gotten it” recently?

A

Generalized conditioned reinforcers

117
Q

What is the type of reinforcers associated with a bottled water when you’re thirsty?

A

Primary positive reinforcer

118
Q

What is the type of reinforcers associated with a gold star on a quiz?

A

Secondary positive reinforcer

119
Q

What is the type of reinforcers associated with an academic probation being ended?

A

Secondary negative reinforcer

120
Q

What is the type of reinforcers associated with pesos?

A

Generalized conditioned reinforcer

121
Q

What is the type of reinforcers associated with loosening a very tight seat belt?

A

Primary negative reinforcer

122
Q

What are schedules of reinforcement?

A

A description in words and numbers of how and when we’ll earn reinforcers

123
Q

What are the 4 main schedules of (intermittent) reinforcement?

A

Fixed ratio
Variable ratio
Fixed interval
Variable interval

124
Q

Which schedule of (intermittent) reinforcement is associated with the following components?

Reinforcer depends on time interval
Same requirement for each reinforcer

A

Fixed interval

125
Q

Which schedule of (intermittent) reinforcement is associated with the following components?

Reinforcer depends on time interval
Different requirement for each reinforcer

A

Variable interval

126
Q

Which schedule of (intermittent) reinforcement is associated with the following components?

Reinforcer depends on number of responses
Same requirement for each reinforcer

A

Fixed ratio

127
Q

Which schedule of (intermittent) reinforcement is associated with the following components?

Reinforcer depends on number of responses
Different requirement for each reinforcer

A

Variable ratio

128
Q

Rank the schedules of reinforcement from most effective to least.

A

VR > FR > VI > FI

Variable RATIO (more responses produce more reinforcers faster, and the reinforcers are unpredictable which leads to more consistent responding)

Fixed RATIO (predictable and produce an increasing rate of responding just before the reinforcer delivery but with postreinforcement pauses)

Variable interval (predictable and force consistent responding, but higher response rates don’t produce reinforcers faster because they’re also dependent upon time to the end of the interval)

Fixed interval (predictable but mostly dependent upon time; toward the end of the interval when the reinforcer is scheduled, responding increases)

129
Q

If every sixth occurrence of a response triggers the delivery of a positive reinforcer, which schedule of reinforcement is being illustrated?

A

Fixed ratio 6

130
Q

What best defines a variable interval schedule of reinforcement?

A

Reinforcing the target behavior after an average amount of time has passed

131
Q

You were outside with a bunch of your friends sitting near a small fire pit. It’s cold, so you light the firewood with a match to get warm. You accidentally burned your hand on the match, which made you drop it on the ground. Now you are careful around matches.

What is the term associated with the action of lighting firewood?

A

Operant behavior

132
Q

You were outside with a bunch of your friends sitting near a small fire pit. It’s cold, so you light the firewood with a match to get warm. You accidentally burned your hand on the match, which made you drop it on the ground. Now you are careful around matches.

What is the term associated with the action of involuntarily recoiling your hand?

A

Pavlovian unconditional response

133
Q

You were outside with a bunch of your friends sitting near a small fire pit. It’s cold, so you light the firewood with a match to get warm. You accidentally burned your hand on the match, which made you drop it on the ground. Now you are careful around matches.

What is the term associated with the action of producing a warm fire?

A

Reinforcer

134
Q

You were outside with a bunch of your friends sitting near a small fire pit. It’s cold, so you light the firewood with a match to get warm. You accidentally burned your hand on the match, which made you drop it on the ground. Now you are careful around matches.

What is the term associated with a burned hand?

A

Unconditional stimulus

135
Q

You were outside with a bunch of your friends sitting near a small fire pit. It’s cold, so you light the firewood with a match to get warm. You accidentally burned your hand on the match, which made you drop it on the ground. Now you are careful around matches.

What is the term associated with cold weather?

A

Antecedent stimulus

136
Q

If the response changes the probability of the unconditional stimulus or consequence, the type of conditioning is ______.

A

Operant conditioning

137
Q

If the response does not change the probability of the unconditional stimulus or consequence, the type of conditioning is ______.

A

Pavlovian conditioning

138
Q

What type of behavior is associated with running out of the dentist’s office to prevent any painful stimulus from occurring?

A

Operant conditioning since the response changes whether the consequence will be delivered

139
Q

Annalise had been driving through campus for three years, but she didn’t think she knew it very well until she started giving tours to prospective students and their parents. What phenomenon might Annalise be demonstrating?

A

Latent learning

140
Q

What is observational/social learning?

A

We understand what to do by watching others.

141
Q

What is imitation?

A

A phase of social learning in which a model demonstrates behavior and an observer copies it

142
Q

True or False? Although the observer chimpanzees and children could move the door in either direction and still obtain the reward, every chimpanzee and child moved the door in the same direction as the model they saw.

A

True

143
Q

What is transferred association?

A

In order to copy the behavior of another, the observer must see the model’s behavior and see the model earn a reward for that behavior.

144
Q

When Charlie watches Simon and then Charlie acts in a way similar to how Simon acted, what did Charlie engage in?

A

Observational learning and imitation

145
Q

What does Bandura’s theory state?

A

Observational learning entails 4 phases:

attentional, retention, production, and motivation.

146
Q

What happens during the attentional phase?

A

We must notice the model’s behavior.

147
Q

What happens during the retention phase?

A

We think about performing the model’s actions ourselves.

148
Q

What happens during the production phase?

A

We actually perform the model’s actions.

149
Q

What happens during the motivation phase?

A

Our imitated behavior produces the same reward that the model earned. If we earn the same reward that we thought we would, we’re more likely to repeat this behavior in the future.

150
Q

True or False? We are more likely to imitate the model when we like and respect that person.

A

True

151
Q

Why do children with autism spectrum disorder not always benefit from social learning?

A

Because they sometimes have trouble with the attentional (first) phase of observational learning.

152
Q

Neil saw his dad shake hands with a friend, and now Neil shakes hands with everyone he sees. How did Neil learn to shake hands with others?

A

Social learning

153
Q

What is biological preparedness?

A

The result in which some events serve as better signals or conditional stimuli than others due to evolution

ex. It’s easier to condition a Pavlovian fear to snakes and spiders than to arbitrary stimuli like flowers and tones.

154
Q

True or False? Phobias cannot be learned in a single trial.

A

False, phobias can be learned in a single trial.

155
Q

True or False? Phobias are of things that could harm our ancestors (like a non-human animal) that we probably won’t encounter.

A

True

156
Q

Explain the paradigm of belongingness for fear conditioning.

A

A laboratory-reared monkey would show no fear of snakes, they would reach across a snake for a marshmallow. Wild-reared monkeys screech in fear when they see a snake, and a previously fearless lab-reared monkey will fear snakes after seeing this fear response from a wild monkey. Socially conditioned fear even generalized to a fake snake.

157
Q

Kasey’s boss has been unnecessarily harsh to her ever since she started working at the company. He finally gave her a chance to prove that she isn’t incompetent, but she didn’t embrace the opportunity like he thought she should. What is a likely explanation for Kasey’s behavior?

A

Learned helplessness

Psychology 100 (5 decks)

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