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Module 13 Flashcards

Social Psychology

1
Q

External attributions are made when consistency is ___, distinctiveness is ___, and consensus is ___?

A

Low, high, high

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2
Q

Internal attributions are made when consistency is ___, distinctiveness is ___, and consensus is ___?

A

High, low, low

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3
Q

What is the actor-observer bias?

A

We are biased to think that others’ actions are more likely to be dispositional than situational.

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4
Q

What is the self-serving bias?

A

When individuals credit their successes to internal/dispositional causes and their failures to external/situational causes. By perceiving your successes to be internally derived and your failures to be the result of external causes, your self-esteem is preserved.

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5
Q

Explain why first impressions are so important

(i.e. last so long)?

A

The PRIMACY EFFECT makes first impressions more impactful and the CONFIRMATION BIAS adds to their impact by making them last.

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6
Q

What is the self-fulfilling prophecy?

A

When we are convinced of a specific future outcome (prophecy), we tend to unconsciously act in ways that create the expected outcome.

“If you think about it hard enough, it has more chances of happening.”

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7
Q

What was Solomon Asch’s classic study of conformity and what does it show?

A

It was a study where a participant was tested on whether they would conform with the confederate group’s wrong answer.
It shows that people will ignore obvious information in order to agree with other people in a group.

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8
Q

Explain the phenomenon of Groupthink.

A

When high degrees of conformity and consistency in a group are highly valued, leading to the exclusion of opposing information and ideas, groups overestimating themselves, underestimating others (being closed-minded), and putting pressure on their members to conform.

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9
Q

What was Stanley Milgram’s experiment and what does it show?

A

It was a study where a person, acting as a teacher, would administer shocks from 15V up to 450V to a confederate posing as a student.
This study shows that people’s obedience to and trust in authority can lead them to commit horrifying acts due to dispersion of responsibility, similarly to the people who were convinced to commit crimes against humanity that fascist regimes encouraged during World War II.

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10
Q

What was the Stanford prison experiment and what does it show?

A

The members of the group of participants were appointed either the role of prisoner or prison guard. It didn’t take long for the participants to settle in into their roles and for violence to escalate due to the “prison guards” taking advantage of their authority and humiliating/hurting prisoners.
The experiment shows that social roles can impact how we perceive ourselves and others and the kinds of actions that we take.

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11
Q

What is the bystander effect and what causes it?

A

When a person in need is less likely to receive help as the number of people who are present increases. This inaction is caused by diffusion of responsibility and pluralistic ignorance.

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12
Q

What is diffusion of responsibility?

A

The larger the witness group is, the less each member feels responsible for acting because each believes that someone else will take action. Each feels less accountable for the outcome of the situation they’re witnessing since they’re not the only witness and therefore may decide to not act, leading to the bystander effect.

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13
Q

What is pluralistic ignorance?

A

When a member of a group feels like any other member has more knowledge about how to handle the situation they’re witnessing and therefore may decide to not act, leading to the bystander effect.

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14
Q

What event caused the discovery of the bystander effect?

A

The murder and rape of Catherine ‘Kitty’ Genovese

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15
Q

What group is an example of extreme conformity, groupthink, obedience, social roles, and bystander effect?

A

Religious cults

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16
Q

What are the 3 components of attitude?

A

Cognitive, affective, and behavioral

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17
Q

True or False? The 3 components of attitude are always in agreement with each other in order to form an attitude.

A

False, these components can be in agreement or disagreement with one another.

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18
Q

What are stereotypes?

A

Attitudes and opinions about people based on their group affiliation

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19
Q

What is the scapegoat theory?

A

It is a theory that attempts to explain stereotyping and its effects by appealing to the idea that people feel empowered when exerting power over others.
Realistic conflict theory appeals to the idea that whenever groups exist, they will struggle over limited resources.

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20
Q

Name a way to reduce reliance on stereotypes and the incidence of prejudice and discrimination.

A

Promoting mutual interdependence

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21
Q

What explains helping behavior (altruism) or hurting behavior (aggression)?

A

Models that appeal to biological and evolutionary histories, and models that appeal to social learning through observation and the acquisition of social norms

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22
Q

What helps best achieve compliance with requests?

A

Implementation of commitment, the reciprocity norm

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23
Q

What is another term for self-serving bias?

A

Fundamental attribution error

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24
Q

What is the attribution theory?

A

A framework used to explain the actions of others as the result of either dispositional or situational causes

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25
What is the main cause of external attributions when it comes to the self?
Access/history with self
26
What is the main cause of internal attributions when it comes to others?
Lack of exposure to them
27
Who knows the teacher better and why? a) Students who followed the teacher for a whole semester b) Students who followed the teacher for only one class
Both groups know the teacher about the same because of the THIN-SLICING phenomenon.
28
Explain the thin-slicing phenomenon.
Gives accurate judgment through... 1) Large enough groups 2) Independent ratings (makes biases even out)
29
True or False? The first person to speak in a brainstorming session affects the majority opinion the most.
True
30
What is the primacy effect?
Overweighting the first impression, it having the most lasting impression
31
Studies have shown that attractiveness gives the impression of better health, intelligence, salary, abilities, etc. What is this effect called?
The Halo effect
32
What is the (primary) confirmation bias?
When the observer seeks an impression of the actor that confirms what they already know about them or that confirms that the observer is right.
33
Explain the placebo and nocebo effects.
Placebo: Positive side effects are felt because they were suggested, even though the pills are inactive. Nocebo (the opposite): Negative side effects are felt because they were suggested, even though the pills are inactive/cause effects that are not as bad.
34
What does Festinger's cognitive dissonance theory suggest?
It is a theory that attempts to explain why attitudes and behaviors are changed or distorted when components of an attitude are in disagreement. We have an inner drive to hold all our attitudes and behavior in harmony and avoid disharmony (or dissonance/mental discomfort caused by holding 2+ contradictory ideas). This is known as the principle of cognitive consistency.
35
People participate to a boring test. Afterwards, they're being told that they'll receive $ if they proceed to lie to someone by telling them that the test was actually interesting. $ received by members of group A: 1$ $ received by members of group B: 1M$ Which group ends up finding the test more interesting?
``` Group A ($ = 1$) Since their lying compensation was a lot smaller, they feel more prone to try to identify with their lie than those in group B who got paid 1M$ (I got paid a million so I don't care about agreeing with my lie). Group A tries to rationalize/minimize their lie by trying to convince themselves that the test was as interesting as they sold it to be. ```
36
What are the 4 ways to change, regarding cognitive dissonance?
Change the attitude Change the behavior Distort attitude(s) Distort perceived behavior(s)
37
What is social psychology?
The study of cognition and behaviors involved in social contexts
38
What is confabulation?
After-the-fact false explanation regarding the reason why you did something, false rationalization
39
Explain the phenomenon of choice blindness.
The participant makes a choice and someone swaps the choices, i.e. changes their choice, unbeknownst to the participant. Most participants won't notice that the final choice isn't theirs and will attempt to explain the final choice as theirs, i.e. confabulate. The stronger they confabulate, the stronger the manipulated attitude. Strong method of manipulation.
40
Explain the phenomenon of social contagion.
If a person in a group does/feels/experiments something, the other members of the group are likely to do/feel/experiment the same. ex. Yawning, emotional contagion (empathy), mass hysteria (mass psychogenic illness, mass symptoms, no organic cause)
41
What is social facilitation?
When we are being watched, we change our performance for the better or the worse. Factors: Self-consciousness, need for approval
42
What is the opposite of social facilitation?
Social loafing: When individual performance is lower in groups because each member feels less responsibility as a result of less required individual effort. Ex. Group work
43
Explain the Yerkes-Dodson law?
Low arousal: Low performance Medium arousal: High performance High arousal: Low performance
44
What is an internal/dispositional attribution?
When a behavior is assumed to be a result of one's personality traits and characteristics
45
What is an external/situational attribution?
When a behavior is assumed to be a result of environmental causes that are beyond one's control
46
Explain Kelley's covariation model.
A single exposure to a person is insufficient to form accurate attributions, meaning multiple observations of behavior over time in a variety of different contexts are required to assess the source of another’s behavior.
47
What are the 3 factors of Kelley's covariation model? Explain.
CONSISTENCY of behavior is about how a person acts in the same situation/context across time. DISTINCTIVENESS of a person's actions is about whether the person behaves similarly across different situations/contexts. CONSENSUS is about the extent to which an individual’s behavior resembles the behavior of others.
48
What aspect of Kelley’s covariation theory considers the repeated late arrival of Student X?
Consistency
49
What aspect of Kelley’s covariation theory compares the late arrival of Student X to the on-time arrival of other students?
Consensus
50
What component of Kelley’s covariation model considers the similarity of Student X’s behavior in other courses?
Distinctiveness
51
What is the fundamental attribution error also known as?
The actor-observer bias
52
What is the false consensus effect?
When we overestimate the extent to which others share our beliefs
53
True or False? Fundamental attribution error helps preserve self-esteem.
False, self-serving bias helps preserve self-esteem.
54
What is impression formation?
How we formulate opinions about individuals or groups
55
What would explain Jennifer’s belief that everyone thinks the exam is hard?
False consensus effect
56
What would explain why Jennifer is blaming the professor for her poor performance on the exam?
Self-serving bias
57
What would explain why the professor concludes that Jennifer lacks the skills needed for success and lacks motivation?
Fundamental attribution error
58
Once we form an opinion about someone, which of the following explains why we attend to information that is consistent with our impressions and ignore information that is not consistent with our beliefs?
Confirmation bias
59
True or False? People from Japan are more likely to demonstrate primacy effects in impression formation than people from the U.S.
False
60
True or False? With regard to impression formation, even if your initial impression is negative, it can be easily changed if subsequent exposures are positive.
False
61
What is social influence?
The process by which our thoughts and actions are shaped by the presence of others
62
What are social norms?
Social norms are prescribed behaviors that vary across contexts, cultures, and time. As the situation changes, so does the expected response.
63
What is the difference between a collectivist society and an individualistic society?
A collectivist society places emphasis on the group instead of the individual, while an individualistic society focuses on individual gains over the betterment of the group.
64
What are social scripts?
Learned behaviors that are expected across a variety of situations
65
What is a confederate?
An individual working with the experimenter, unbeknownst to participants
66
What is conformity?
The extent to which individuals modify their behavior to be consistent with the behavior of others in the group
67
What is compliance?
A type of social influence where an individual does what someone else wants them to do, following a request or suggestion
68
What is an out-group?
The group that a person does not belong to. Members of the out-group are assumed to be highly homogeneous.
69
What are historical events that demonstrated groupthink?
Japan's attack on the American naval base Pearl Harbor and the launch of the space shuttle Challenger
70
Which characteristic of groupthink is associated with the following? Excess optimism that increases risk-taking (Nothing could possibly go wrong)
Illusion of invulnerability
71
Which characteristic of groupthink is associated with the following? Minimize and/or disregard the warning of others (They don’t know what they are talking about – don’t waste your time)
Collective rationalization
72
Which characteristic of groupthink is associated with the following? Hold negative views of out-groups and have high in-group favoritism (They are not good people and we are better than them)
Stereotyped views
73
Which characteristic of groupthink is associated with the following? Group members are pressured to conform and not express diverging ideas/opinions. (We all agree and no one cares what you think, so keep quiet)
Direct pressure on dissenters
74
Which characteristic of groupthink is associated with the following? The illusion of a united front makes members think that their ideas are incorrect/wrong. (Everyone agrees, so there is no point in sharing my ideas – I am probably wrong anyway)
Self-censorship
75
Which characteristic of groupthink is associated with the following? The group appears unanimous because dissenting views are not considered. (Everyone agrees so there is nothing to discuss)
Illusion of unanimity
76
Which characteristic of groupthink is associated with the following? Some group members want to protect the leader and the group by enforcing group cohesiveness and quashing dissenting ideas. (The group agrees and no one want to hear your nonsense, so stay quiet)
Self-appointed ‘mindguards’
77
Which characteristic of groupthink is associated with the following? Belief that the group is looking out for the greater good (We are making the world a better place and know what we are doing)
Belief in inherent morality
78
According to the Asch’s research findings, how many percent of participants complied with an incorrect answer at least once?
75%
79
Adding more confederates would not increase participants’ level of conformity after ___ confederates all responded the same on all tasks.
3
80
A person from Canada or China would be most likely to conform to the incorrect responses of others?
China
81
What was the maximum shock of the shock generator used in Milgram’s experiments?
450V
82
In Milgram’s original design, how many percent of participants administered all shocks to the learner?
65%
83
What was the initial prediction of psychiatrists and psychologists on the percentage of people who will administer the final shock of 450 volts and did it match the actual results from Milgram's studies?
Less than 1%, no
84
When the location was changed from the campus of Yale University to a warehouse in Bridgeport, Connecticut, full obedience dropped from __% to __%?
65% to 48%
85
Name a mediating factor in obedience to authority and explain.
As the PHYSICAL DISTANCE decreased between the experimenter and the teacher, so did the obedience.
86
Who was the professor at Stanford University behind the Stanford prison experiment?
Philip Zimbardo
87
What statement represents the events in at Abu Ghraib prison in Iraq?
The power of the situation can be so great that good people do bad things.
88
True or False? When hearing of the prison scandal at Abu Ghraib, Zimbardo took an interest in helping the defense of one of the U.S. soldiers who was involved.
True
89
True or False? Philip Zimbardo and Stanley Milgram grew up in the same area in the Bronx and were classmates in high school.
True
90
True or False? According to Zimbardo, all people can become evil.
True
91
How long did it take for one of the prisoners in the Stanford Prison Experiments to have a complete emotional collapse?
36 hours
92
True or False? Participants in the Stanford Prison Experiment were informed that the local police would come to “arrest” them.
False
93
According to Zimbardo, what events inspired Milgram’s classic research?
The Holocaust and curiosity about how much a person would shock another with minor prompts from an authority figure
94
True or False? People are more likely to give CPR, whether they're certified or not, when there is blood, vomit, body odor, or the smell of alcohol.
False, people are LESS likely to give CPR, whether they're certified or not, when there is blood, vomit, body odor, or the smell of alcohol.
95
True or False? Most cults aren't built around a charismatic leader.
False, cults are typically built around a charismatic leader.
96
What is love-bombing?
It is a tactic used by cult members to recruit new ones by bombarding them with attention, affection, and interest.
97
Who was the leader of the People's Temple (cult)?
Reverend Jim Jones
98
What happened on November 18, 1978?
900 believers of the People's Temple committed mass suicide in Guyana.
99
Where was the People's Temple located?
In Jonestown, in a remote area in the South American jungle
100
Why did Jim Jones always wear sunglasses?
He told followers that the power that emanated from his eyes was so powerful that he had to wear dark sunglasses to protect his followers.
101
What amplified feelings of isolation and helplessness within the People's Temple cult?
A perceived unanimous majority, pluralistic ignorance, and fear of retaliation
102
Who was the leader of the cult that was infiltrated with 3 educated social psychologists?
Marian Keech
103
For members of the doomsday cult, when faced with the reality that the world was not ending and no spaceship was coming, what did most members do?
They remained with the cult, even more committed now that they had all saved the world.
104
Which of the following best describes the premise or ideas that were the focus of attention of the doomsday cult under the leadership of Marian Keech? The world’s destruction Keech’s ability to channel other beings The belief that a spaceship would pick up members Saving the world
All of them
105
According to Marian Keech, what would make boarding a spaceship difficult or impossible?
If the passenger was wearing metal
106
What is the way to reduce cognitive dissonance presented with the following? "I know a ton of people who smoke and they don’t have cancer. My great-grandfather smoked every day since he was 15 and he lived to be 92. Everyone in my family smokes and no one has cancer, besides smoking relaxes me. Cigarettes are legal - it is not like I am smoking crack!"
Attitude change
107
What is the way to reduce cognitive dissonance presented with the following? "I am going to stop smoking because I do not want to die from cancer."
Behavior change
108
What is the way to reduce cognitive dissonance presented with the following? "The link between smoking and cancer is only for heavy smokers and I am not a heavy smoker. Even so, most people who get cancer don’t even smoke. The real culprit is the chemicals and preservatives that are in food."
Attitude distortion
109
What is the way to reduce cognitive dissonance presented with the following? "I really do not smoke that much; I am a light smoke. I only smoke about a pack of cigarettes a day, maybe even less. I am more of a social smoker. People who smoke two and three packs a day are heavy smokers, not me."
Behavior distortion
110
What is the stereotype threat?
The risk of confirming negative expectations about one's own social group The fear of acting consistently with a stereotype becomes a self-fulfilling prophecy.
111
What is prejudice?
Learned, negative attitudes or opinions that a person has towards certain groups
112
What is discrimination?
Adverse behaviors directed at groups towards which one holds negative and prejudicial beliefs
113
What is mutual interdependence?
The need for individuals or groups to work together toward a common goal
114
What did the Robbers Cave experiments show?
The Robbers Cave experiments supported realistic conflict theory and showed that to decrease discrimination, it is vital for people of equal status to work together toward a common goal.
115
How many percent of those on a blind date chose to go on a second date based solely on physical attractiveness?
100%
116
What is the mere exposure effect?
The more time and experience that we have to someone is associated with an increased liking of that person.
117
What is the difference between instrumental aggression and hostile aggression?
With instrumental aggression, violent behavior is purposeful and is a means to achieve some goal, while hostile aggression has the sole purpose of inflicting harm on another living creature.
118
What percentage of the variability in levels of aggression are attributed to genetics?
60%
119
What is behavior modeling?
Learning to complete a task by simply copying the behavior of another person
120
What is social learning?
Learning behaviors and skills by watching others engage in those behaviors
121
True or False? Children exposed to either real-life or filmed segments of children or adults engaging in violent behavior were more likely to subsequently exhibit high levels of imitation aggression and non-imitation aggression than children exposed to non-violent models and control groups
True
122
True or False? Men are more aggressive than women due to men’s levels of testosterone.
True
123
True or False? Watching violence within your community increases aggression.
False
124
True or False? Hyperactivity of the amygdala increases aggression in animals.
True
125
What statement best explains Albert Bandura’s theory behind aggression?
Violent behavior is quickly learned by watching aggressive models who are rewarded.
126
What is prosocial behavior/altruism?
Behaviors that are done to benefit another without the expectation of anything in return
127
True or False? Men are generally more likely to offer help than women.
False, men are generally LESS likely to offer help than women.
128
True or False? Gender roles have no effect on altruism.
False
129
True or False? Women can develop more intuitive responses.
True
130
What is the reciprocity norm?
The idea that if others help us, then we should provide something in return In casual social interactions, a person may give you something unwanted in hopes of invoking the reciprocity norm. In such situations, you may feel compelled to reciprocate, even though you were given something that you do not want.
131
What compliance method is associated with the following? Initial expected outcome: Small request accepted Desired outcome: Small request accepted
Foot-in-the-Door
132
What compliance method is associated with the following? Initial expected outcome: Large request is rejected Desired outcome: Compliance with smaller request
Door-in-the-Face
133
What compliance method is associated with the following? Initial expected outcome: A person agrees to a purchase at a good price. Desired outcome: The original deal changes and it’s not as desirable.
Lowballing
134
Why does Foot-in-the-Door work?
Commitment
135
Why does Door-in-the-Face work?
Reciprocity norm
136
Why does Lowballing work?
Commitment and Reciprocity norm

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