Module 2 Flashcards
Psychology Methods
1
Q
What are the steps of the scientific method?
A
- Identify the problem
- Gather information
3 Generate a hypothesis - Design and conduct experiments
- Analyze data and formulate conclusions
- Restart the process at step 3 by taking what you’ve learned into consideration
2
Q
What’s the difference between naturalistic and participant observation?
A
Naturalistic observation does not include the researcher being part of the environment while they’re making their observations about it while participant observation does.
3
Q
Name 2 biases that can appear in observational research.
A
The Hawthorne effect/reactivity and when multiple observers disagree about what they’ve observed
4
Q
What is the Hawthorne effect/reactivity?
A
When participants change their behavior in response to being observed
5
Q
What are case studies?
A
An in-depth way to gather a large amount of detailed information about a unique circumstance, an individual, or a handful of individuals.
6
Q
True or False? Case studies are generalizable to larger populations.
A
False, case studies may not be generalizable to larger populations.
7
Q
How can sampling error/bias occur?
A
When the people who participate in a study are not representative of the intended population
8
Q
How can populations be sampled effectively?
A
By using random sampling techniques
9
Q
Name 4 factors that can influence the way people respond to questions in surveys (disadvantages).
A
Wording effects
Acquiescent response bias
Socially desirable bias
Illusory superiority
10
Q
What are the 5 ethical principles that have been developed by the APA to guide research with human subjects?
A
- Beneficence and nonmaleficence
- Fidelity and responsibility
- Integrity
- Justice
- Respect for people’s rights and dignity.
11
Q
What is the APA?
A
The American Psychological Association
12
Q
What are the 3 ethical requirements of research in psychology?
A
Strive to have the most potential benefits to society with the fewest potential harms
Not take advantage of participants
Be truthful with both participants in the study and the wider scientific community
13
Q
Name 2 groups that are considered vulnerable populations.
A
Those with impaired decision-making skills and those who are vulnerable by virtue of their circumstances
14
Q
What is is especially important in vulnerable populations regarding ethical psychological studies?
A
Informed consent
15
Q
True or False? Deception in psychological research is never warranted in order for the research to be ethical.
A
False, deception in psychological research can be warranted in special circumstances, however participants must be fully debriefed about any deception that occurred after they finish participating in the study.
16
Q
What is correlation?
A
The relationship between two or more variables
17
Q
What are the values of correlation?
A
Zero, positive until +1, or negative until -1
18
Q
Name the 2 components of correlation and explain.
A
STRENGTH: How closely two variables are related
DIRECTION: How two variables vary together
Positive: Increase or decrease together
Negative: Inversely related
19
Q
What are correlation coefficients calculated for?
A
To describe the strength and direction of a correlation
20
Q
True or False? Causation is just another word for correlation.
A
False
21
Q
How are causation and correlation different?
A
At times, correlation coefficients are misleading or confounding variables can make two variables appear causally related when they, in fact, are not.
22
Q
Which variable is manipulated by researchers in experiments?
A
The independent variable
23
Q
As a result, which variable can be changed?
A
The measured dependent variable/outcome measure
24
Q
What are “experimental” and “control” groups?
A
The experimental group is the group that receives the treatment of interest, while the control group receives no treatment.
25
If a person believes in a cause-and-effect relationship, what can happen?
Placebo effects
26
How can placebo effects be mitigated in research experiments?
By using placebo groups
27
What is internal validity?
The degree to which results may be attributable to the independent variable rather than some other effect of our experiment. Basically, was the experiment done “right”?
28
Which variables threaten our ability to claim that an independent variable causes a change in a dependent variable?
Extraneous/confounding variables
29
What is external validity?
The extent to which the results of an experiment are generalizable to other people, other settings, other time periods, or other contexts
30
What are measures of central tendency and when are they used?
Mean, median, mode
| They are used to find a number that best represents the data.
31
What are measures of variability and when are they used?
Standard deviation, variance
| They are used to describe the distribution or “spread” of the data.
32
What is the mean?
The average score in a data sample
33
What is the median?
The “middle” score if the scores were rank-ordered from lowest to highest
34
What is the mode?
The most common score
35
What is the standard deviation?
The average distance from the mean score in a data set
36
What is the purpose of the standard deviation?
To analyze whether scores are all very close to the mean or more spread out
37
What are inferential statistics and how are they useful?
Inferential statistics allow us to make inferences about whether differences exist between 2+ sets of data.
ex. Whether or not a true difference is likely to exist between experimental and control groups
38
What is rationalism?
The belief or theory that reason is the key source of knowledge
39
What does the "Door" Study show?
Most people would fail to notice if the person they are talking to is replaced by another person.
40
What is a hypothesis?
The predicted outcome of an experiment or research study
41
True or False? The theory is part of the scientific method.
False, the theory is not part of the scientific method.
42
Using the scientific method, in what stage does a scientist “test” their hypothesis?
Design and conduct experiments
43
What are the 4 popular methods to describe groups?
Naturalistic observation
Participant observation
Case studies
Surveys
44
What is naturalistic observation?
Observation of behavior as it happens in a natural environment, without an attempt to manipulate or control the conditions of the observation
45
What is a field experiment?
An experiment that takes place in 'real-world' settings in which a researcher manipulates and controls the conditions of the behavior under observation
46
True or False? Field experiments are considered naturalistic observation.
False, since field experiments manipulate or control the conditions of the observation.
47
What does the word “Hawthorne” refer to?
A factory called Hawthorne Works Electric Company
48
In the Hawthorne study, what was one change that was mentioned?
The amount of lighting in the work environment
49
Damon Brown’s work found that the change in the working environment was not the important factor on productivity. Rather, it was simply that the employees were being observed. Which step in the scientific method does this address?
Data analysis
50
Explain the disadvantages of naturalistic observation.
Researchers lack control over the environment so we may not always be sure of what is influencing behavior, which can weaken the conclusions drawn.
It may also make it difficult for another researcher to repeat the exact same experiment.
Researchers’ perspectives and bias may also influence the interpretation of behaviors they find relevant, since 2 observers might take away different observations from the same event.
51
Why is it important for researchers to share results?
To ensure the validity of the data they collect and ensure interrater reliability
52
David Rosenhan, a professor at Stanford University, was highly skeptical of the diagnostic abilities of clinicians and questioned the accuracy of diagnostic techniques. At the heart of his doubt was whether clinicians could reliably distinguish the sane from the insane. How long was the investigation that resulted from his doubt?
3 years
53
How many researchers posed as potential patients?
8, 5 men and 3 women
54
How many hospitals were tested?
12 hospitals in 5 different states
55
What did the researchers test?
The notion that psychiatrists were incapable of making accurate distinctions between sanity and insanity
56
What were the 3 words that it took to admit all of the researchers to the psychiatric care facilities?
Empty, hollow, thud
57
What was the diagnostic for the researchers?
11/12 Schizophrenia
| 1/12 Manic-depressive psychosis
58
True or False? Clinicians of the hospitals and the other patients could not see that the pseudopatients were sane.
False, while the clinicians could not see that these pseudopatients were sane, patients in the hospital routinely suspected that the researchers were “faking it.”
59
Under what diagnosis were Rosenhan and the other pseudopatients discharged from the hospital?
Schizophrenia in remission
60
Explain the disadvantages of participant observation.
The participation of the researcher in the environment can influence participants’ behavior, therefore creating the problem of reactivity and affecting the behavior being observed.
A researcher’s views and bias can affect the interpretation of events.
Low degree of reliability (the consistency or repeatability of research findings)
The observations made are highly dependent on the unique conditions of participation, and what may be true for one person’s experience may not be readily shared by others.
61
What was the side effect/consequence of Henry Molaison's surgery to treat his seizures?
He could no longer form new memories.
62
Which event triggered Henry's seizures in the first place?
Him falling off his bike and hitting his head
63
Explain the challenges of participant observation.
To generalize findings from a unique case
Since a case study is focused on only 1 person/group/event, we can never be sure the conclusions drawn from this particular case can be broadly generalized to other cases.
64
True or False? Naturalistic observation, participant observation, and case studies allow researchers to capture a representation of an entire population of people.
False, surveys capture a representation of an entire population of people.
65
What is a survey?
A method using questions to collect information on how people think or act
66
What is a sampling error/bias?
Any pooled selection of students that differs from the entire population in meaningful ways.
67
What are wording effects in surveys?
Questions asked in surveys must be carefully worded to avoid biasing the outcome in either a positive or negative way.
68
What is the acquiescent response bias in surveys?
A general tendency to say yes to questions regardless of the participant's actual opinion
69
What is the socially desirable bias in surveys?
The desire to answer in socially desirable ways
70
What is the illusory superiority in surveys?
A tendency to think of ourselves as better than average.
71
What is the volunteer bias in surveys?
Only a motivated fraction of a population respond to a survey or participate in research
72
True or False? The term “Hawthorne effect” refers to the effect the presence of an observer can have on the behavior on the subjects or a temporary change in behavior due to the novelty of the situation.
True
73
What are research ethics?
A set of principles or standards of behavior for psychologists to follow in research
74
Which study was a critical reflection point in developing a consensus of guidelines for the treatment of all research participants in the United States?
The Tuskegee syphilis study
75
What was the goal of the Tuskegee syphilis study?
To follow the natural progression of syphilis, a contagious disease spread primarily through sexual contact
76
Which ethical principle fits the following description?
Research should strive to do good (beneficence) and avoid creating experiments that can intentionally harm (maleficence) participants.
Psychologists must put in place safeguards to protect the mental and physical well-being of research participants.
Beneficence and Non-maleficence
77
Which ethical principle fits the following description?
Researchers should be honest and reliable with participants.
If a study is known to include potential risks of participation, the psychologist should let people know ahead of time so they can make an informed decision whether to participate or not. Psychologists have a responsibility to protect the well-being of participants by intervening if they see any situation that may harm participants.
Fidelity and Responsibility
78
Which ethical principle fits the following description?
Psychologists should engage in accurate, honest, and non-biased practices in the science, teaching, and practice of psychology.
Psychologists should always strive to communicate results to colleagues and the public accurately, without making up data (fabrication) or manipulating research data (falsification).
Integrity
79
Which ethical principle fits the following description?
Researchers should not include or exclude any group from participation for reasons that are unrelated to the study.
The people who participate in the research process should also be the same people who stand to benefit from the research outcomes.
Justice
80
What is an inclusion criterion?
An attribute of participants that is necessary to be a part of a research study
81
What is an exclusion criterion?
An attribute of a person that would prevent them from participating research study
82
What are eligibility criteria?
Set of characteristics shared by all participants that ensure that those participating will meaningfully help to address the research question
83
Which ethical principle fits the following description?
Each person is valued in the research process and that researchers should take measures to respect and protect participants' rights, privacy, and welfare.
Researchers should communicate openly and honestly about the details of the study before asking for participants' consent to participate in the research process.
Researchers are required to respect the privacy and confidentiality of all participants. It is important to ensure that data are kept private and even made anonymous to ensure that identifying information cannot be traced back to an individual.
Respect for people's dignity also includes understanding the vulnerabilities of participant populations (e.g., socioeconomic status, religion, race, disability) and taking measures to ensure that participants are not coerced into participating in an experiment that they otherwise might not feel comfortable doing (compensation).
Respect for People's Rights and Dignity
84
Which ethical principle is associated with the following statement?
A researcher's obligation to say something when they believe that participants are not being treated fairly
Fidelity and Responsibility
85
Which ethical principle is associated with the following statement?
A researcher makes every effort to remove factual errors from the study report
Integrity
86
Which ethical principle is associated with the following statement?
The capacity and rights of all individuals to make their own decisions
Respect for People’s Rights and Dignity
87
Which ethical principle is associated with the following statement?
Protection of the research participant is more important than the pursuit of new knowledge
Beneficence and Nonmaleficence
88
Which ethical principle is associated with the following statement?
Researchers should not exclude any group from participation for reasons that are unrelated to the study
Justice
89
Which principle did the Tuskegee researchers violate when they failed to provide medical treatment to participants?
Beneficence and Nonmaleficence
90
What is the IRB?
The Institutional Review Board, a committee of independent people who review and assess whether a research project will be carried out in a way that is consistent with general ethical principles
91
What does informed consent mean?
Participants give permission to participate in a study when all the details and risks of study participation are known.
92
Which principle did the Facebook study violate?
Respect for People’s Rights and Dignity
93
What is decisional impairment?
When a potential participant has diminished capacity to provide informed consent
ex. Children and the mentally disabled may not be able to understand their rights as participants or the risks associated with their participation.
94
What is situational vulnerability?
When the freedom of “choice” to participate in research is compromised as a result of undue influence from another source
ex. Military personnel and prisoners scared of being punished, people in economically disadvantaged situations
95
What is assent?
A person's affirmative permission to take part in a research study
In cases of decisional impairment, assent must be obtained in addition to informed consent.
96
What is deception?
The act of withholding information about the purpose and procedures of the study during the informed consent process
97
When a study is over, participants are given further details about the purpose of the experiment, their role in helping to answer the research question, and are also informed if deception was used in the experiment. What is this part of the study called?
Debriefing
98
Name an experiment that is an example of research deception.
Milgram's conformity experiment
99
How many percent of participants delivered shocks up to 300 volts?
100%
100
The Milgram Obedience study has received considerable criticism for lack of consideration of which of the ethical principles?
Beneficence and Nonmaleficence
| Respect for People’s Rights and Dignity
101
What is a cofounding variable?
Another variable that may influence one or both variables that we are measuring, influencing the correlation coefficient as a result
102
Which is the cofounding variable between ice cream sales, temperature, and homicides?
Temperature
103
What is the correlation associated with the following statement?
People who live in colder climates are more likely to get sick from a cold.
Negative
| As temperature decreases, probability of sickness increases
104
True or False? If the number of “hours spent studying” is positively correlated with the “test score,” spending more time studying will result in a higher test score.
False
If the number of “hours spent studying” is positively correlated with the “test score,” higher exam scores are associated with a greater number of hours spent studying.
105
A study found a correlation coefficient of .85 between spatial navigation skills and scores on a driving test. What would this suggest?
As spatial navigation scores increase, so do scores on a driving test.
106
How should a hypothesis be?
```
Consistent with prior observations or an existing theory
As simple as possible
Specific
Testable
Falsifiable
```
107
What is another term for cofounding variables?
Extraneous variables
108
Imagine that we are interested in how maternal separation affects stress early in life. To explore this relationship, we separate young rat pups from their mothers for 15 minutes per day and measure corticosterone levels (a hormonal marker of stress) just before returning the pups back to their mother. What is the independent variable?
Separating rat pups from their mothers
109
Imagine that we are interested in how maternal separation affects stress early in life. To explore this relationship, we separate young rat pups from their mothers for 15 minutes per day and measure corticosterone levels (a hormonal marker of stress) just before returning the pups back to their mother. What is the dependent variable?
Corticosterone levels
110
What is a simple random sample?
A type of sampling where every individual in the population has an equal chance of participating
111
What is the advantage of a simple random sample?
If large enough, it should approximate the larger population we wish to study.
112
What is a stratified random sample?
A stratification divides the population first by subgroups, and then randomly takes samples in proportion to the population of interest.
113
What is a non-random sample?
A convenience sample, a group of individuals that are only selected because of a pre-existing condition, convenience, or easy access to participation
114
According to this “The Magic of the Placebo” TED Talk, which type of placebo is best?
A needle is more effective than a capsule.
115
According to this “The Magic of the Placebo” TED Talk, what is the main connection between magic and the placebo effect?
The placebo is felt even when you know it’s fake.
116
How well the experimenter can generalize to the population of interest is called _____?
External validity
117
True or False? Socioeconomic status being negatively related to crime rates is non-causal.
True
118
What is the central tendency in any data set?
The score that best represents the others
119
What is the variance?
The average sum of squared deviations, also the square of the standard deviation
120
What is variability?
A difference in the measure of the spread of data
121
What is a statistically significant event, unlikely to happen by chance alone?
An event that has less than 5% of probability in happening,
122
What is the normal distribution?
A bell-shaped curve
Symmetrical
Single central peak in the middle (the average of the data)
Spread of data (the standard deviation) gets smaller and smaller as we move away from the mean
Mean = median = mode
123
Ronald Fisher determined that around ___ standard deviations away from the mean represent the most extreme __% of our population on one side of the distribution.
1.64, 5%
