Module 4: Determining the Truth Flashcards
Philosophy deals with the concept of
truth
Knowledge must be truthful to gain ________
validity and acceptance
how to justify?
through perception
appeal to authority
use of reasoning
5 theories of truth
- correspondence
- coherence
- constructivist
- consensus
- pragmatic
the Greeks understand knowledge as
justified true beliefs
there is a connection
correspondence
correspondence comes from a Latin word:
correspondentia: idea of things that go together or match
correspondentia is a combination of what latin words?
cor : together
respondere: to respond/ to answer
your statement should connect to your actions
correspondence
coherence comes from the Greek word:
cohaerentia
co: together
haerentia: adhering or sticking
something is true if it corresponds with reality of the way things are
ex. A mammal is any class of warm-blooded higher vertebrae
corresnpondence theory
the theory that is based on perspectives
ex. Muslims have a belief that certain animals like pigs are unclean.
coherence theory
hold together logically or forming a unified whole
coherence
this theory of truth is universal
correspondence theory
coherence theory promotes
relativism: no absolute truths
a belief is true if it is part of a coherent system of beliefs
coherence theory
something is true if it make sense when placed in a certain situation or context
coherence theory
a theory which always have context
coherence theory
knowledge is gained through the experience of society that requires interaction or collaboration
ex. marriage
constructivist theory
a theory that believes that reality is constructed by human beings
constructivist theory
you build the truth
constructivist theory
shaped by social forces and influenced by culture and history
constructivist theory
agreement
consensus
a philosophical POV which holds that truth is a matter of social agreements
consensus theory
majority of the society accepts
it as true, therefore, it is true
ex. Decision of the IAV in 2006 to change the planet Pluto classification to a dwarf planet
consensus
useful
pragmatic
tested to confirm validity
pragmatic theory
something is true if it works or we can apply or make it useful in real life
ex. after 6 diet
pragmatic theory
they are presented in a form of arguments, and these arguments are phrased in a way that they mae look or sound reasonable or logical
fallacy
mistake in reasoning or faulty reasoning
fallacy
defect in an argument because of false premises or false conclusions
fallacy
fallacy is derived from the Latin word:
fallo: I deceive
the three divisions of fallacy
- fallacy of language
- fallacy not of language
- fallacy of relevance
the six fallacies of language
- equivocation
- amphiboly
- composition
- division
- accent
- figures of speech
fallacy of language in which a term is used in 2 or more different senses within a single argument
equivocation
determine the fallacy of language:
Jesse Magno was a minister. Pope Francis is a minister. Therefore, Pope Francis is Jesses Magno
equivocation
a fallacy of language that occurs when there is a defect in the grammatical construction of the sentence
amphiboly
a fallacy of language that gives the argument a double interpretation due to the structural defect, mistake in grammar, or arrangement of words
amphiboly
determine the fallacy of language:
I read a book riding in a bus yesterday.
amphiboly
a fallacy of language that occurs when one argues that since each part of the whole has a certain feature, it follows that the whole has the same feature
composition
determine the fallacy of language:
specific to general
composition
a fallacy of language that argues that since the whole has some feature, each part must also have that feature
division
a fallacy of language in which the attributes of the whole is applied to a specific part
division
determine the fallacy of language:
general to specific
division
determine the fallacy of language:
Each member of the gymnastics team weighs less than 110 lbs. Therefore, the whole gymnastics team weighs less than 110 lbs.
composition
determine the fallacy of language:
The house costs 1 million dollars. Therefore, each part of the house costs 1 million dollars.
division
a fallacy of language that happens when there is a faulty or undue emphasis (accent/ tone) upon certain words or statement
accent
determine the fallacy of language:
slow men at work
accent
it is a fallacy of language that wrongly inferring similarity of meaning from similarity of word structure
figures of speech
fallacy of language that causes confusion in both senses of some words
figures of speech
determine the fallacy of language:
What is immaterial is not material; and what is insoluble is not soluble; therefore, what is inflammable is not flammable
figures of speech
linguistic fallacies
fallacy of language
non-linguistic fallacies
fallacy not of language
errors that occur when the content or substance of the argument is flawed, irrespective of the language, or wording used.
fallacy not of language
it pertains to the problems in the content of the argument itself
fallacy not of language
6 fallacies not of language
- accident
- converse accident
- false dilemma
- begging the question
- complex question
- false cause
fallacy not of language wherein the general rule is taken to be universal and the possibility of an exception is ignored
accident
fallacy not of language also known as “the sweeping generalization”
accident
determine the fallacy not of language:
Birds can fly. Therefore, kiwis can fly.
accident
a fallacy not of language in which the premises are individual cases and the conclusion is a generalization
converse accident
a fallacy not of language also known as “the hasty generalization”
converse accident
determine the fallacy not of language:
Ying and Yang got pregnant after before marriage and they are happily married. Therefore, it is good to be pregnant before marriage.
converse accident
fallacy not of language that occurs when one assumes the truth of the conclusion in one or more of the premises
begging the question
fallacy not of language also known as petitio principii
begging the question
fallacy not of language that assume under some form or other the conclusion that should be proved and then using it as a premise to prove the same conclusion
begging the question
fallacy not of language which uses a circular reasoning
begging the question
determine the fallacy not of language:
Allah exists because the Quran says and the Quran is an ifallible word of God.
begging the question
fallacy not of language that occurs when we presume two contraries used as contradictories wherein there are only 2 choices avalaible, when other alternatives do exists
false dilemma
determine the fallacy not of language:
If your really love me, then you should give it to me.
false dilemma
fallacy not of language that appears as a single question loaded with two or more hidden distinct questions
complex questions
fallacy not of language that occurs when asking a multiple question as if it were a single question
complex question
determine the fallacy not of language:
Have you stopped visiting my wife?
complex question
a fallacy not of language that even if you answer yes or no, you will still be under an awkward situation
complex question
fallacy not of language that assumes a cause and effect relationship between unrelated events
false cause
fallacy not of language that occurs because the inference made is just a presumption of casual connection between the premise and the conclusion, where the connection does not exist
false cause
determine the fallacy not of language:
I offered a dozen of eggs for the souls in the cemetery, and it rained.
false cause
a fallacy where the argument presented does not directly address or support the conclusion
fallacy of relevance
a fallacy wherein the conclusion is logically irrelevant to the premise
fallacy of relevance
6 fallacies of relevance
- Argumentum ad Hominem
- Argumentum ad Populum
- Argumentum ad Verecumdiam
- Argumentum ad Misericordiam
- Argumentum ad Baculum
- Argumentum ad Ignorantiam
fallacy of relevance which is regarded as “against the man”
argumentum ad hominem
fallacy of relevance that occurs when someone attacks the person making the argument rather than addressing the argument itself
argumentum ad hominem
fallacy of relevance that attempts to discredit the arguer by focusing on their character, background, and personal attributes
argumentum as hominem
determine the fallacy of relevance:
Qualified naman si ,Mukha Usok. She has three brains. One non-functional brain and… You know where the other two are
argumentum ad hominem
fallacy of relevance which is regarded to as the ‘‘appeal to the popular” or “appeal to the people”
argumentum ad populum
a fallacy of relevance that believes that a proposition is true because many believe it to be true.
argumentum as populum
determine the fallacy of relevance:
Everyone drives over the speed limit, so it should not be against the law.
argumentum as populum
fallacy of relevance which is regarded to as the “appeal to authority”
argumentum ad verecumdiam
fallacy of relevance that invokes someone whose expertise is not relevant to the issue for which we are invoking it
argumentum ad verecumdiam
fallacy of relevance that involves citing an authority figure to expert to support an argument when the authority’s expertise is not relevant to the topic at hand
argumentum ad verecumdiam
determine the fallacy of relevance:
Isabel Yllana (actress) “Profeed us the best milk for babies”
argumentum ad verecumdiam
fallacy of relevance which is regarded to as the “appeal to emotions” or “appeal to pity”
argumentum ad misericordiam
Different kinds of authority cited by logicians in different kinds of ad verecumdiam arguments
- experts in particular field of knowledge
- prestigious or powerful individuals or institutions
- social, family, religious, or ancestral heads
fallacy of relevance which is based on sympathy or empathetic instead of just or logical grounds
argumentum as misericordiam
determine the fallacy of relevance:
If we don’t pass this new law, our children will be doomed to a life of poverty and suffering.
argumentum ad misericordiam
fallacy of relevance which is regarded to as “appeal to fear” or “appeal to force”
argumentum ad baculum
fallacy of relevance which uses threats to gain one’s belief or “yes”
argumentum ad baculum
fallacy of relevance in which someone with authority threatens to bring down unfortunate consequences upon anyone who does to disagree with a preferred proposition
argumentum ad baculum
determine the fallacy of relevance:
You should choose to work overtime at the same rate of pay. After all, you do not want to lose your job, would you?
argumentum ad baculum
fallacy of relevance which is regarded to as “appeal to ignorance”
argumentum ad ignorantiam
fallacy of relevance which holds that a proposition is true because it has yet to be proven as a false or a proposition is false because it has not yet to be proven as true
argumentum ad ignorantiam
fallacy of relevance which believes that if claim hasn’t been disproven, it must be true
argumentum ad ignorantiam
determine the fallacy of relevance:
I do not know if extra terrestrial exists, and no one can tell me otherwise, hence they exist
argumentum ad ignorantiam
generally established truths, easily verified, and do not easily change from one situation to another
facts
they are statements of assertions that can be objectively verified and proven to be true or false
facts
pieces of information that are based on empirical evidence, data, or direct observation and can be demonstrated or supported with little to no room for interpretation or subjectivity
facts
Key characteristics of facts
- Objective and verifiable
- Consistent
- Empirical Evidence
personal beliefs, judgement, or perspective that is not necessarily based on empirical objective verifiable facts
opinion
subjective and can vary from person to person; can be biased
opinions
more subjective and may express certain views and beliefs
opinions
Key Characteristics of opinion
- subjective
- open to interpretations
- not necessarily supported by objective evidence
tendencies of influences which affects the views of people
bias
careful, reflective, rational, and systematic approach to questions of very general interest
critical thinking
can influence how information is gathered, interpreted, and presented, leading to a distortion of the truth or a one-sided perspective
bias
systematic and unfair inclination or prejudices in favor or against a particular person, group, idea, or thing
bias
philosophical questions have answers, but the answers remain in…
dispute
methodology that philosophers use to address philosophical questions
critical thinking
TRUE OR FALSE:
Philosophical questions cannot be settled by science, common sense, or faith
TRUE
TRUE OR FALSE:
Philosophical questions are of peripheral intellectual interest to human beings.
TRUE
Attributes of a critical thinker
LALER
1. Looks for evidence
2. Adjust opinions
3. Looks for proofs
4. Examines problems
5. Rejects irrelevant and incorrect information
6 types of bias
- Correspondence bias or attribution effect
- Confirmation bias
- Framing
- Hindsight
- Conflict of interest
- Cultural bias
Types of bias which has the tendency to judge a person’s personality by her actions, without regard for external factors
correspondence bias or attribution effect
Type of bias which has a tendency to look for and accept information which fits with one’s own views and reject the views that go against it
confirmation bias
Type of bias that focuses on a certain aspect of a problem while ignoring other aspects
framing
Type of bias which has the tendency to see past events as predictable or to ascribe a pattern to historical event
hindsight
Type of bias in which a person or group is connected to or has vested interest in the issue being discussed
conflict of interest
Type of bias which analyzes an event or issue based on one’s cultural standards
cultural bias
