Module 4

Question 1

Procedural memory

Answer 1

The mostly implicit learning and remembering of a specific process.

E.g. learning to ride a bike or play an instrument.

Question 2

Working memory

Answer 2

A hypothetical short-term memory system which acts as a mental workspace that temporarily holds, analyses and manipulates information (both new and old input/memories).

It has two primary functions:
- Store small amounts of information for a short time
- Handle this information for various cognitive tasks e.g. thinking and understanding language

Working memory is thought to have separate stores for visual and auditory information.

E.g. WM is like a busy office environment

Question 3

Storage

Answer 3

Where information waits before being retrieved.

Question 4

Retrieval

Answer 4

The process of recalling information.

Question 5

Sensory memory

Answer 5

A memory store that takes in as much information as possible (from the senses) at every moment of the day.

Only relevant information is passed from sensory memory to short term memory.

Question 6

Short-term memory

Answer 6

Memory held in conscious awareness and which is currently receiving attention.

STM can also function as WM: as a mental workspace performing processing operations on old and new memories.

Storage is of brief duration (15-30 seconds) and limited capacity (holds around 4-7 of the most relevant chunks of information at any point in time).

Information is forgotten afterwards unless it is continually rehearsed.

It can also be used for retrieval of memories from storage.

Question 7

Buffer

Answer 7

What keeps information active in our short-term memory before reaching the rehearsal threshold and passing through to long term memory.

Question 8

Miller’s magic number

Answer 8

We can hold seven plus or minus two chunks of information in short term memory.

Question 9

Central executive

Answer 9

A hypothetical mechanism believed to have overall control of working memory, cognitive processing, and is the main focus of conscious awareness.

Controls tasks such as information organisation, decision making, problem solving, planning and selective attention.

Controls two short-term slave stores (phonological and visuospatial loops) and uses them to help with processing.

Has three main functions:
- Inhibition (suppression of dominant responses)
- Shifting (attention switching between tasks)
- Updating (monitoring stored and new information input)

Question 10

Phonological loop

Answer 10

A hypothetical component of working memory that provides temporary storage for verbal/auditory information.

It has two sub-components:
-Phonological store (inner ear, stores heard auditory information)
- Articulatory control process (inner voice, rehearses words to retain information in working memory)

It is important for the acquisition, use and comprehension of language.

Question 11

Visuo-spatial sketchpad

Answer 11

A hypothetical component of working memory that provides temporary storage for visual and spatial information.

It has two sub-components:
- Visual cache
- Inner scribe

It is thought to be important for visual pattern recognition and in the perception and control of movement.

Question 12

Episodic buffer

Answer 12

A hypothetical component of working memory that integrates sensory information and provides a link between WM and LTM.

It may also be involved in conscious awareness.

E.g. is like a meeting room where information from different departments is brought together, integrated and then linked with the company’s long-term strategies and archives.

Question 13

Visual cache

Answer 13

Stores visual data and information such as shape and colour.

Question 14

Visual scribe

Answer 14

Holds spatial information (arrangements of objects) and transfers it to the central executive.

Also assists with the control of physical actions.

Question 15

Elaborative encoding

Answer 15

Works by entwining new information with already known information, which creates robust and meaningful connections in our memory.

Question 16

Principle of encoding specificity

Answer 16

Memories are encoded with specific keys and the retrieval process requires a key similar to the original.

The closer the conditions during retrieval resemble those during encoding, the more effortless the memory access.

Memories are best recalled when the conditions of retrieval mirror those during encoding (context dependent).

Question 17

Generate and recognise theory (GRT)

Answer 17

Postulates that recall involves a dual-phase process.

Initially individuals generate potential answers or solutions.

Following this, they engage in the act of recognising the correct ones from their mental catalogue.

Recall is viewed as a synthesis of both generation and recognition.

Question 18

Serial position curve

Answer 18

Showcases the primacy and recency effects.

The tendency to better recall items and the beginning and end of a list.

Question 19

Primacy effect

Answer 19

The tendency for participants to show particularly good recall for items presented towards the start of a list.

Possibly because these items receive more attention and undergo more extensive processing.

Question 20

Recency effect

Answer 20

Items at the end of the list are particularly well remembered. Suffers less interference.

Possibly because they are still present in our short-term memory when asked to recall.

Question 21

The forgetting curve

Answer 21

Illustrates the pattern of memory loss over time.

Memory decays rapidly within the first few hours after learning, but rate of forgetting slows as more time elapses. It follows a pattern of exponential decay.

58%/20mins
44%/60mins
1/3 / end of day

Question 22

Interference theory

Answer 22

The primary reason we forget is not due to natural decay but because some memories interfere with others.

Newer memories or other competing memories can overshadow or replace previous ones.

There are two main types of interference:

Proactive interference
Retroactive interference

Question 23

Proactive interference

Answer 23

Older memories make it difficult to remember new information.

Question 24

Retroactive interference

Answer 24

New memories prevent the retrieval of older memories.

Question 25

Schema

Answer 25

Pre-existing mental frameworks that influence how we encode, store and retrieve information.

A mental template used to organise and interpret information.

Schemas are formed throughout experiences and cultural upbringing, and they guide our understanding and recall of events, places and people.

Question 26

Flashbulb memory

Answer 26

Are memories often associated with surprising or highly impactful events.

They are vividly detailed and can be retained for an extended period.

They are akin to a photograph capturing the moment’s intense emotional and contextual details e.g. where one was, what they were doing, specific emotions they felt.

Question 27

Suggestive interviewing techniques

Answer 27

Techniques where non-neutral language or prompts are used to shape a response.

Such techniques can lead to the development of false memories that can be detailed and self-incriminating.

It highlights the necessity of maintaining objective and unbiased methods in eliciting information to prevent the creation of false memories.

Question 28

Propaganda effect

Answer 28

An effect where repeated statements, regardless of their factual accuracy, become ingrained in our memory as truths.

This plays a critical role in shaping public opinion and beliefs.

It reflects the vulnerability of our memory to external influences.

Question 29

Misinformation effect

Answer 29

The tendency for the information learned after an event to interfere with the original memory of what happened.

Individual psychological factors, such as suggestibility, memory capacity and stress levels can significantly influence the reliability of eyewitness accounts.