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Physiology > Module 4 > Flashcards

Module 4 Flashcards

1
Q

How does the cardiovascular system address the challenge of transporting oxygen molecules, nutrients, and waste products over long distances?

A

it performs bulk transport of these things through the bloodstream.

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2
Q

Why are diffusion, osmosis, and active transport inadequate for transporting oxygen from the lungs to distant cells?

A

They are slow and inefficient for long-distance transport

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3
Q

What triggers vascular spasms?

A

Damage to a blood vessel.

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4
Q

How does the sympathetic nervous system contribute to hemostasis?

A

reinforces vascular spasms to increase resistance and decrease blood flow.

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5
Q

What 6 things do receptors monitor in the blood that help in maintaining homeostasis?

A

monitors:
1. pressure
2. volume
3. osmolarity
4. pH
5. O2 and CO2 levels
6. hormone levels

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6
Q

Why is vascular spasm alone insufficient to stop bleeding entirely?

A

it minimizes blood loss, but does not completely halt bleeding.

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7
Q

What is the significance of thrombus in hemostasis?

A

forms a blood clot to seal the damaged vessel and prevent further bleeding as final step of process

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8
Q

How are platelet plugs formed?

A

the von Willebrand factor (vWf) binds to collagen fibers exposed by vessel damage, activating platelets.

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9
Q

Substances that activated platelets secrete are

A

serotonin
epinephrine
ADP
thromboxane A2

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10
Q

What does blood regulation adjust to ensure proper tissue function?

A

pressure, volume, & composition to meet the body’s needs.

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11
Q

How does platelet aggregation occur?

A

ADP secretion

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12
Q

What is the protective function of white blood cells and antibodies found in the blood?

A

protect the body from foreign invaders including
1. viruses
2. bacteria
3. parasites
4. toxins.

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13
Q

What do healthy endothelial cells produce to regulate platelet aggregation?

A

prostacyclin and nitric oxide to prevent excessive plug formation.

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14
Q

What is the role of vasoconstriction in platelet plug formation?

A

it’s reinforced by serotonin, epinephrine, and ADP secreted by activated platelets.

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15
Q

What are the components of the cardiovascular system?

A
  1. heart
  2. arteries
  3. arterioles
  4. veins
  5. venules.
  6. capillaries
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16
Q

What is the third event of hemostasis?

A

Blood/Fibrin clotting

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17
Q

role of the heart in the cardiovascular system.

A

right side: pumps blood to the lungs for oxygenation
left side: pumps oxygen-rich blood to the rest of the body.

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18
Q

What is the coagulation cascade?

A

sequence of reactions leading to fibrin formation

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19
Q

Explain the intrinsic pathway.

A

Factor XII activated by collagen and phospholipids, leading to factor X activation.

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20
Q

Function of Lymphatic system

A

collects fluid leaked from the cardiovascular system and returns it to the bloodstream.

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21
Q

Describe the extrinsic pathway.

A

Tissue factor activates factor VII (7), which then activates factor X (10)

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22
Q

Lymphatic Capillaries

A

transport and filter lymphatic fluid

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23
Q

How do intrinsic and extrinsic pathways converge?

A

Both activate factor X, leading to thrombin formation and fibrin production.

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24
Q

What surrounds the heart?

A

The pericardium, a membranous sac.

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25
Q

Where do white blood cells congregate in the lymphatic system, and what do they do?

A

In lymph nodes, to deal with foreign matter present in the lymph fluid.

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26
Q

Where is the heart located?

A

In the thoracic cavity.

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27
Q

Which chambers form the pump for the pulmonary circuit?

A

Right atrium and right ventricle.

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28
Q

What are the 4 components of blood and their % of volume?

A
  1. plasma (55%)
  2. erythrocytes (45% red blood cells)
  3. leukocytes ( < 1% white blood cells)
  4. platelets (< 1%)
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29
Q

What are the valves at the ventricles’ exits?

A

Pulmonary and aortic semilunar valves.

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30
Q

What is the function of albumin(protein) in plasma?

A

maintaining plasma osmotic pressure.

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31
Q

What vessels connect to the heart?

A

Superior and inferior venae cavae, pulmonary trunk, and aorta

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32
Q

What are the 5 main types of white blood cells?

A
  1. neutrophils
  2. lymphocytes.
  3. monocytes
  4. eosinophils
  5. basophils
    (Never Let Monkeys Eat Bananas)
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33
Q

How does blood flow through the cardiovascular system?

A

One-way, aided by valves, from higher to lower pressure.

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34
Q

Describe the path of blood from the body back to the heart.

A

Superior and inferior vena cavae -> right atrium -> right AV valve -> right ventricle -> pulmonary semilunar valve -> pulmonary trunk -> pulmonary arteries.

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35
Q

What happens in the lung capillaries?

A

Gas exchange: Oxygen in, carbon dioxide out.

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36
Q

How does oxygenated blood return to the heart from the lungs?

A

Right and left pulmonary veins -> left atrium -> left AV valve -> left ventricle.

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37
Q

Where does blood go from the left ventricle?

A

Through the aortic semilunar valve into the aorta.

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38
Q

How does blood reach the body’s organs and tissues?

A

Via arteries, arterioles, and capillary beds.

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39
Q

What 2 things distinguish erythrocytes from other blood cells?

A
  1. lack nuclei, mitochondria and other organelles
  2. specialized for oxygen transport.
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40
Q

What type of blood flow occurs in the body?

A

Parallel flow, delivering oxygenated blood directly to each organ.

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41
Q

Describe the return path of blood to the heart.

A

Capillary beds -> venules -> veins -> superior and inferior vena cavae.

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42
Q

What is the lifespan of erythrocytes?

A

120 days before being removed from circulation.

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43
Q

What supplies the heart muscle with oxygen and nutrients?

A

coronary arteries branching from the aorta.

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44
Q

What is the role of platelets in blood?

A

forming clots to stop bleeding.

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45
Q

Why does blood move forward in vessels?

A

Pressure difference or valve closure.

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46
Q

Define erythropoiesis.

A

production of red blood cells in the bone marrow

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47
Q

How do leukocytes defend the body against pathogens?

A

phagocytosis and the release of toxic molecules.

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48
Q

What is the most abundant cell in the blood?

A

Erythrocytes

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49
Q

Describe why blood flows into the right atrium.

A

Higher pressure in vena cavae.

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50
Q

What causes blood to move into the right ventricle?

A

Lower pressure.

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51
Q

How does the right atrium assist in filling the right ventricle?

A

Contracts slightly.

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52
Q

What prevents backflow in the heart?

A

Valve closure.

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53
Q

How do AV valves stabilize?

A

Chordae tendineae and papillary muscles.

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54
Q

What closes when ventricular pressure is high?

A

AV valves.

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55
Q

What is the average internal diameter of an artery?

A vein?

A

4.0 mm.
5.0 mm.

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56
Q

Plasma consists of what two things?

A

Water (90%)
Proteins (8%)

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57
Q

match the blood vessel type to the anatomical feature (artery, vein, arteriole, capillary, venule)
1. Muscular; highly elastic
2.Muscular; well innervated
3.Thin-walled; highly permeable
4.Thin-walled; some smooth muscle
5. Thin-walled (compared to arteries); fairly muscular; highly distensible

A
  1. artery
  2. arteriole
  3. capillary
  4. venule
  5. vein
58
Q

What type of proteins are globulins?

A

Clotting and transfer proteins

59
Q

What is the role of leukocytes in the blood?

A
  1. phagocytosis
  2. attacking parasites
  3. releasing toxic molecules
  4. mounting specific immune responses.
60
Q

Function of erythrocyte

A

transport oxygen and carbon dioxide

61
Q

What are blood vessels composed of (arteries, arterioles, veins)

A

Endothelial cells, connective tissue, smooth muscle

62
Q

What do all blood vessels contain in their lumen?

A

Endothelial cells.

63
Q

Function of Neutrophil

A

phagocytosis of foreign material

64
Q

What drives synchronized contractions of atria and ventricles?

A

Precise order of excited muscle cells.

65
Q

Function of eosinophil

A

kill parasites

66
Q

What secretes chemical mediators in inflammation and allergic reactions?

A

basophil

67
Q

Monocytes function in _________

A

Phagocytosis

68
Q

What supports immune response of other cells; secrete factors that kill infected or tumor cells?

A

Lymphocytes

69
Q

Define myogenic and autorhythmic

A

Heart muscle generates own contraction signal.

70
Q

How do pacemaker cells initiate action potentials?

A

Continuously, sweeping across heart.

71
Q

Why doesn’t the heart need external input to contract?

A

Repolarization triggers next action potential.

72
Q

Function of platelets

A

hemostasis

73
Q

Describe intercalated disks.

A

Specialized junctions enabling rapid communication.

74
Q

What is the origin of all blood cells and platelets?

A

Hematopoietic stem cells in the bone marrow

75
Q

Why is rapid communication between heart cells crucial?

A

Ensures smooth blood flow through circuits.

76
Q

What is the location of the sinoatrial node (SA node)?

A

Upper wall of right atrium.

77
Q

What is the innate rate of action potentials in the SA node?

A

About 100 impulses per minute.

78
Q

What 2 things does hematopoietic stem cells differentiate into?

A

Lymphoid and Myeloid stems

79
Q

Describe the size and shape of the SA node.

A

Small flattened ellipsoid, 3 mm wide, 15 mm long, 1 mm thick.

80
Q

Where is the atrioventricular node (AV node) located?

A

Near the right AV valve, interatrial septum.

81
Q

What role do colony-stimulating factors and interleukins play in blood cell development?

A

They stimulate the development of white blood cells.

82
Q

What is the innate rate of action potentials in the AV node?

A

About 50 impulses per minute.

83
Q

What initiates action potentials in the heart?

A

Sinoatrial node (SA node)

84
Q

What 5 things stimulate the production of erythropoietin?

A
  1. Hypoxia (low oxygen)
  2. high testosterone
  3. norepinephrine
  4. epinephrine
  5. prostaglandins.
85
Q

How do action potentials travel from the SA node to the AV node?

A

Internodal pathway.

86
Q

What happens when the signal reaches the AV node?

A

Pause for approximately 0.1 second.

87
Q

Why does the signal pause at the AV node?

A

Slower transmission speed.

88
Q

Factors that decrease oxygenation

A

Low blood volume
anemia
low hemoglobin
poor blood flow
pulmonary disease
very high altitude

89
Q

What is Cardiac Output?

A

rate at which a ventricle pumps blood.

90
Q

How do ventricular muscle cells contract?

A

action potentials triggered by the signal

91
Q

Describe the movement of muscle contraction in the ventricles.

A

Like a wave, pushing blood out of the exits.

92
Q

What initiates the opening of T-type calcium channels? (pacemaker cells)

A

Initial depolarization.

93
Q

Why are the numbers of red blood cells regulated within narrow limits?

A

To ensure sufficient oxygen transport without impeding blood flow.

94
Q

How is cardiac output calculated?

A

Cardiac output (CO) = Heart rate (HR) x Stroke volume (SV).

95
Q

What follows the closing of potassium channels? (contractile cells)

A

Funny channels open, allowing sodium entry.

96
Q

How do the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems affect cardiac output?

A

They can affect the rate and force of heart muscle contraction

97
Q

What happens when L-type calcium channels open? (contractile cells)

A

Further depolarization occurs

98
Q

How does increased sympathetic activity affect heart rate and cardiac output?

A

increased frequency of action potentials in the SA node, speeding up depolarization and increasing heart rate and cardiac output.

99
Q

What triggers the opening of voltage-gated potassium channels? (contractile cells)

A

Depolarization.

100
Q

What leads to the closure of T-type calcium channels? (contractile cells)

A

Increased depolarization.

101
Q

What occurs during repolarization? (contractile cells)

A

Closure of calcium channels.

102
Q

How do potassium channels contribute to repolarization? (contractile cells)

A

Exit of potassium from the cell

103
Q

What channels open during the initial period of depolarization? (contractile cells)

A

Funny channels.

104
Q

Increased activity in sympathetic neurons leads to an __________in heart rate and cardiac output.

A

Increase

105
Q

What ions move into the cell during the initial period? (contractile cells)

A

Sodium.

106
Q

Which channels open during the later period of depolarization? (contractile cells)

A

T-type calcium channels.

107
Q

Increased activity in the parasympathetic neurons leads to a ___________ in heartrate and cardiac output.

A

decrease

108
Q

In contractile cells, what ion moves into the cell during rapid depolarization?

A

Sodium.

109
Q

What happens to sodium movement during small repolarization in contractile cells?

A

sodium movement decreases into the cell

110
Q

Epinephrine leads to an __________in heart rate and cardiac output.

A

increase

111
Q

Thyroid hormones, insulin, and glucagon ____________ heart rate and cardiac output

A

increase

112
Q

Decreases in heartrate and, therefore, cardiac output can be achieved by ____________ sympathetic nervous activity or ______________ parasympathetic nervous activity.

A

decreasing
increasing

113
Q

increases in heartrate and, therefore, cardiac output can be achieved by ____________ sympathetic nervous activity or ______________ parasympathetic nervous activity.

A

increasing
decreasing

114
Q

What 3 factors change the amount of blood that comes out of the ventricles of the heart in one beat?

A
  1. Changes in ventricular contractility
  2. end-diastolic volume
  3. afterload
115
Q

Increased sympathetic activity, epinephrine, insulin, glucagon, and thyroid hormones _________ ventricular contractility to _________ stroke volume and, therefore, cardiac output.

A

Increase
Increase

116
Q

During the plateau phase in contractile cells, what happens to potassium inward rectifier channels?

A

They close.

117
Q

What channels open during the plateau phase in contractile cells?

A

Calcium L-type channels open

118
Q

What ions move into the contractile cell during the plateau phase?

A

Calcium.

119
Q

Increases in end-diastolic volume cause greater stretch in the heart muscle which triggers increases in force of contraction of heart muscle cells to increase stroke volume and, therefore, increase cardiac output.

What is this known as

A

the Starling effect

120
Q

In contractile cells, what channels open during repolarization?

A

Potassium delayed rectifier channels.

121
Q

What ions move out of the cell during repolarization in contractile cells?

A

Potassium.

122
Q

: What happens to calcium movement during repolarization in contractile cells?

A

calcium movement decreases into the cell

123
Q

__________ in arterial pressure (against which the heart must work to pump blood out of the heart) cause decreases in stroke volume which lead to ____________in cardiac output.

A

Increase
Decrease

124
Q

In the resting potential of contractile cells, what channels open?

A

Potassium channels (both types)

125
Q

What 2 factors determine blood flow through the cardiovascular system?

A

pressure difference and resistance to flow

126
Q

What is an ECG?

A

Record of heart’s electrical activity.

127
Q

How is blood flow calculated?

A

Blood flow = pressure difference / resistance

128
Q

How are ECGs produced?

A

Multiple electrodes on skin

129
Q

Define Pressure difference

A

a measure of the force pushing blood through a blood vessel

130
Q

What do P waves represent?

A

Atrial depolarization.

131
Q

a measure of the force that hinders blood flow thorugh a blood vessel is defined as ___________

A

resistance

132
Q

What does the QRS complex represent?

A

Ventricular depolarization.
Atrial repolarization

133
Q

What does the T wave represent?

A

Ventricular repolarization.

134
Q

Does absolute pressure affect blood flow?

A

No, except in the respect that it influences the pressure difference between two areas

135
Q

What is mean arterial pressure (MAP)?

A

average pressure in the aorta during the cardiac cycle

136
Q

WHy is MAP typically used as a measure of our pressure gradient?

A

Because the pressure in the superior and inferior vena cavae is so low

137
Q

What does Poiseuille’s Law describe?

A

resistance to flow in individual blood vessels.

138
Q

How is resistance (R) calculated in Poiseuille’s Law?

A

R = 8Lη/πr^4

L is the length of the tube
η is the viscosity of the fluid
r is the radius of the tube.

139
Q

How does tube length affect resistance according to Poiseuille’s Law?

A

Longer tubes have more resistance.

140
Q

What is the overall resistance of a network of blood vessels called?

A

Total peripheral resistance (TPR)

141
Q

How is cardiac output (CO) calculated using MAP and TPR?

A

CO = MAP/TPR.

Physiology (10 decks)

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