Module 2 Flashcards
Name the 5 classes of neurotransmitters
- Choline Derivative
- Biogenic Amines
- Amino Acids
- Neuropeptides
- others
Name the class of the Neurotransmitter:
Examples: Acetylcholine
Characteristics: ACh is used as a neurotransmitter in both the CNS and PNS, but it is the most abundant NT in the PNS
Choline Derivative
Name the class of the Neurotransmitter:
Examples: catecholamines including dopamine, epinephrine, norepinephrine; serotonin; histamine
Characteristics: are derived from amino acids, and contain an amine group (-NH2).
Biogenic Amines
Name the class of the Neurotransmitter:
Examples: glutamate, aspartate, glycine, GABA
Characteristics: Amino acids NTs are the most abundant NTs in the CNS.
Amino Acids
Name the class of the Neurotransmitter:
Examples: TRH; vasopressin; oxytocin; substance P; endogenous opioids including enkephalins and endorphins
Characteristics: More than 50 neuropeptides have been identified. Neuropeptides are made in the cell body of a neuron at the rough ER, packaged into vesicles by the Golgi apparatus just like any other protein destined for secretion from a cell, and then carried to the axon terminal for storage.
Neuropeptides
Name the class of the Neurotransmitter:
Examples: nitric oxide, ATP
Characteristics: Nitric oxide is regulated differently than other NTs because it diffuses through the plasma membrane of the presynaptic cell as soon as it is synthesized; therefore, regulation of synthesis occurs rather than regulation of release. Nitric oxide enters target cells by diffusion and alters protein activity.
Others
most abundant neurotransmitters in the CNS
Amino Acids
Central Nervous System (CNS) consists of:
the brain and spinal cord
Define blood-brain barrier
Tight junctions between endothelial cells of capillaries.
Cell bodies and nerve fibers lacking myelin; interior of cord
Grey matter
Myelinated axons of interneurons, run along length of cord; outer portion of cord
White matter
__________fibers enter on _________side via dorsal roots
Afferent; Dorsal
__________fibers ________on ventral side via ventral roots
Efferent; Leave
Can afferent and efferent nerves carry information in one or both directions?
Both because they join to form spinal nerves
Does the spinal canal run up or down center and what does it contain?
down, cerebrospinal fluid
The brain forms from….
expansion and folding over of anterior portion of spinal cord
What are the 3 regions of the brain?
forebrain, midbrain, hindbrain
The region of the brain that performs higher functions
Forebrain
F. Frontal Lobe
P. Parietal Lobe
T: Temporal Lope
O: Occipital Lobe
I: Insula Lobe
- storage (memory) of auditory and visual experiences
- concentration, planning, decision making
- Integrates movements in focusing the eye
- understanding speech and formulating words to express thoughts and emotions
- memory; integration of other cerebral activities
- T
- F
- O
- P
- I
masses of gray matter composed of neuron cell bodies; function in control of voluntary movement
Basal Nuclei/Ganglia
Which hemisphere is dominant in language and analytical ability?
Left Hemisphere
What 4 things is the right hemisphere important for?
- pattern recognition
- musical composition
- singing
- recognition of faces
What 2 structures are Implicated as center for many emotions?
Limbic system, hypothalamus
What structure is required for the consolidation of short-term memory into long-term memory?
Medial temporal lobe
________ _________: involved in visual reflexes
________ ________: involved in auditory reflexes
Both apart of midbrain
Superior colliculi; inferior colliculi
The metencephalon and myelencephalon are a part of what region of the brain?
Hindbrain
Define Efferent division
neurons carrying information out to effectors
Define Afferent division
neurons carrying information from sensory receptors
What 2 systems are in the efferent division?
- Somatic nervous system (SNS)
- Autonomic Nervous System (ANS)
Are the Enteric, Sympathetic, and Parasympathetic nervous systems apart of the SNS or ANS?
Autonomic NS
The pathway that information travels to reach perception or the conscious interpretation of the world based on the sensory system itself, memory, and other neural processes.
Sensory Systems
Every sensory pathway EXCEPT ____________ goes through thalamus
olfaction
a specialized cell that is separate from an afferent neuron or it can be the modified end of an afferent neuron that is designed to detect a specific form of energy (a modality) in the environment.
Receptor
Determine weather each one uses a chemoreceptor (CR), thermoreceptor (TR), mechanoreceptor (MR), or photoreceptor (PR):
- vision
- taste
- smell
- pain
- blood oxygen
- blood pH
- warmth
- cold
- blood pressure
- Osmolarity of extracellular fluid
- Sound
- balance and equilibrium
- PR: vision
- CR: taste
- CR: smell
- CR: pain
- CR: blood oxygen
- CR: blood pH
- TR: warmth
- TR: cold
- MR: blood pressure
- MR: Osmolarity of extracellular fluid
- MR: Sound
- MR: balance and equilibrium
what is interpreted based on which receptor sent the signal?
Modality
Location is coded by what 4 things?
active neurons, topographic organization, timing, and lateral inhibition.
Intensity is coded by…
the number and frequency of activated receptors
what is detected by rapidly-adapting and slowly-adapting receptors?
Duration
What is the primary function of neurons in the nervous system?
a. Energy storage
b. Responding to stimuli and conducting impulses
c. Synthesizing hormones
d. Producing antibodies
b. Responding to stimuli and conducting impulses
Which type of neurons transmit information from sensory receptors into the CNS?
a. Efferent neurons
b. Interneurons
c. Afferent neurons
d. Oligodendrocytes
c. Afferent neurons
What is a characteristic feature of interneurons?
a. Found in the PNS
b. Transmit information to effectors
c. Account for 99% of all neurons
d. Cannot undergo mitosis
c. Account for 99% of all neurons
In the CNS, what structures are formed by the grouping of neuron cell bodies?
a. Nerves
b. Ganglia
c. Nuclei
d. Tracts
c. Nuclei
Which glial cells are critical to the formation of the blood-brain barrier and guide neurons during development?
a. Astrocytes
b. Microglia
c. Oligodendrocytes
d. Ependymal cells
a. Astrocytes
most neurons contain what 3 things
dendrites, cell body, and axon
Producing macromolecules and containing the nucleus is the function of what in a neuron?
Perikaryon
Where does the initiation of action potentials occur in a neuron?
a. Axon terminal
b. Dendrites
c. Axon hillock
d. Cell body
c. Axon hillock
Serving as a receptive area for electrical impulses is the role of what in a neuron?
Dendrites
How is information transmitted between neurons at the synapse?
By the flow of neurotransmitters across the synaptic cleft
difference in voltage between two points
Potential Difference (E)
difference in voltage across the plasma membrane from the inside of the cell to the outside of a cell
Membrane potential (Vm)
difference in voltage between the inside and outside of a cell when the cell is at rest (not sending signals)
Resting Potential (Vm)
a relatively small change in membrane potential produced by some type of stimulus that triggers the opening or closing of ion channels; size of a graded potential is dependent upon the size of the stimulus
Graded Potential
graded potential produced in a post-synpatic cell in response to neurotransmitters binding to receptors
Synaptic potential
graded potential produced in response to a stimulus acting on a sensory receptor
Receptor potential
large, rapid change in membrane potential produced by depolarization of an excitable cell’s plasma membrane past threshold; the electrical signal in a neuron; APs are “all-or-none”
Action potential
the membrane potential that counters the chemical forces acting to move an ion across a membrane which puts the ion at equilibrium; the membrane potential that a cell would have if it were based on a single ion which is allowed to come to equilibrium
Equilibrium potential
What does Ohm’s Law (I = E/R) relate in the context of neurons?
a. Ion concentration
b. Membrane potential
c. Electrochemical gradient
d. Current, voltage, and resistance
current, voltage, and resistance
What determines the membrane potential of a cell, according to the information provided?
a. Ion permeability and electrochemical gradient
b. Cell size and shape
c. Temperature and Faraday constant
d. Action potential frequency
a. Ion permeability and electrochemical gradient
What does the Nernst equation describe?
a. Membrane permeability to different ions
b. Equilibrium potential for a single ion
c. Ohm’s Law in biological systems
d. Temperature-dependent ion movements
b. Equilibrium potential for a single ion
Why is the resting membrane potential of neurons closer to the equilibrium potential of potassium ions than sodium ions?
a. Neurons prefer potassium ions
b. Sodium ions are impermeable to the membrane
c. More potassium leak channels than sodium leak channels
d. Equilibrium potential of sodium is negative
c. More potassium leak channels than sodium leak channels
What does the Goldman’s Equation take into consideration that the Nernst equation does not?
a. Ion concentrations
b. Faraday constant
c. Permeabilities of different ions
d. Temperature variations
c. Permeabilities of different ions
the process that occurs when an action potential reaches the axon terminal
voltage-gated calcium ion channels open, allowing calcium ions to enter the axon terminal. The increase in calcium concentration triggers vesicles containing neurotransmitters to undergo exocytosis
How do voltage-gated calcium ion channels play a role in the release of neurotransmitter at the axon terminal?
1.Voltage-gated calcium ion channels in the axon terminal membrane open in response to the action potential
2.calcium ions move down their electrochemical gradient from outside the neuron to inside
3. The increase in calcium concentration triggers vesicles filled with neurotransmitter to bind to the axon terminal membrane and undergo exocytosis
4. The neurotransmitter is released into the synapse.
What happens to neurotransmitter after its release from the pre-synaptic cell?
- Neurotransmitter can diffuse away from the synapse
- Neurotransmitter can be degraded by enzymes in the synapse
- Neurotransmitter or the pieces degraded by enzymes can be taken back up by the pre-synaptic cell to be used again.
What can easily get through the blood brain barrier and what cannot?
Lipophilic molecules can enter quickly but disease-causing organisms can not.
