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diversity of form and function > module 3 (exam 2) - animal diversity > Flashcards

module 3 (exam 2) - animal diversity Flashcards

1
Q

name 5 important characteristics that define an animal

A

multicellularity (and cell specialization)
heterotrophic metabolism (eating other organisms)
internal digestion
ability to move
nervous systems

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2
Q

what 5 important characteristics allow animals to survive?

A

eat nutrients & take in oxygen
expel waste
protect themselves
grow
reproduce

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3
Q

what is the ancestral form of symmetry? who/where is it present?

A

spherical symmetry - present in some protists but no animals

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4
Q

define radial symmetry

A

symmetry in that any plane along the central body axis can divide the animal into similar halves

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5
Q

define bilateral symmetry

A

a single plane through the anterior-posterior midline divides the animal into near-identical halves

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6
Q

what do radial and bilateral symmetry have in common?

A

in both, animals typically have an anterior (associated with mouth) and posterior

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7
Q

which form of symmetry is associated with greater mobility?

A

bilateral symmetry

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8
Q

what are the 2 types of digestive systems?

A

sac design and tube

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9
Q

give main characteristics of sac design digestive systems (3)

A

one one opening for both eating food and excreting waste
no specialization for ingestion/regurgitation
small and thin

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10
Q

give main characteristics of tube digestive systems (1)

A

two openings - mouth for eating and anus for excreting
ex. humans

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11
Q

what are the 3 different strategies of body cavities

A

acoelomates, pseudocoelomates, and coelomates

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12
Q

what defines an acoelomate?

A

no coelom - no cavity but rather filled with masses of cells

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13
Q

do acoelomates have an easy or difficult time moving around? what do they use for locomotion?

A

more difficult to move because no open body cavity
use cilia to move

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14
Q

what defines a pseudocoelomate?

A

the coelom is not completely enclosed by the mesoderm
the pseudocoel (cavity) is filled with fluid

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15
Q

what defines a coelom?

A

a body cavity & internal organs fully surrounded by mesoderm

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16
Q

what main ability differs between organisms with body cavities and those without?

A

animals without a body cavity have a more difficult time moving around than those with body cavities

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17
Q

T or F: most animals are at least partially segmented

A

true

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18
Q

what are the benefits of segmentation? (3)

A

allows specialization of body regions
helps change body shape
changes in segmentation allowed radiation of arthropods

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19
Q

do humans have segmentation?

A

yes - some
abdominal muscles are segmented

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20
Q

what are 5 types of appendages & their uses?

A

feet (locomotion)
hands (for grasping/using tools)
antennae (sense organ)
claws/mouth appendages (eating)
appendages for transfer of sperm/egg incubation

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21
Q

why are nervous systems essential in animals?

A

allows for the coordination of movement and gives sensory systems a way to process

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22
Q

how does a nerve net work?

A

there is no central processing center (like the brain), but it can still relay, sense, and react

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23
Q

what is the proposes pathway for how colonial protists became multicellular animals? (6 steps)

A

adherence of cells –>
cell specialization –>
further differentiation of cells –>
cell coordination/communication –>
increase in size of animals –>
increase in complexity of animals

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24
Q

cells in animals are adhered to one another and arranged into what?

A

tissues

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25
Q

what ability does adherence of cells give tissues so they may be successful?

A

cells can stick to each other and to the extracellular matrix

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26
Q

what are the molecules (2) that allow cells to stick?

A

Cell Adhesion Molecules (CAMs) and integrins

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27
Q

what is the purpose of integrins?

A

they attach a cell’s cytoskeleton to collagen (& other proteins) in the extracellular matrix

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28
Q

how do integrins function?

A

it has binding sites for the cell cytoskeleton and extracellular matrix so that the cell is bound to the matrix

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29
Q

when integrin’s 3-D structure changes, what is the result?

A

it can no longer bind to the EXM & the cell detaches

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30
Q

what are the 3 types of animal cell junctions?

A

tight junctions, desmosomes, and gap junctions

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31
Q

what is the function of tight junctions?

A

they prevent materials from the ECM from moving between the intercellular spaces of epithelial cells
no molecule movement

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32
Q

what is the function of desmosomes?

A

they bind cells tightly but allow some materials to move between intercellular spaces & within cell membranes

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33
Q

what is the function of gap junctions?

A

pores that allow adjacent cells to exchange material
important for coordination & communication between cells

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34
Q

what are the 4 purposes of epithelial tissue ?

A

lining or covering with barriers, exchange of molecules, communication, and coordination

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35
Q

what is the purpose of muscle tissue?

A

movement and generating force

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36
Q

what are the 3 types of muscle?

A

skeletal, cardiac, and smooth muscle

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37
Q

what 5 things characterize skeletal muscle?

A

multinucleate, striated, voluntarily moved, moves quickly, and is meant to take breaks every so often

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38
Q

what 4 things characterize cardiac muscle?

A

cells are coordinated by gap junctions, some striations, acts in rhythmic fashion, has continuous movement

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39
Q

what 4 things characterize smooth muscle?

A

some tissues have gap junctions and others not, not striated, involuntary regulated by nervous system, moves slowly

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40
Q

what characterizes connective tissue?

A

typically has fewer cells and more extracellular matrix (often with protein fibers like collagen and elastin in the matrix)

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41
Q

where is connective tissue found in the body?

A

adipose (fat), cartilage, bone, and blood

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42
Q

what is the purpose of connective tissue?

A

storage, structure, movement, and flexibility

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43
Q

what is the purpose of the nervous system?

A

communication (fast electrochemical signals), sensory, and coordination

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44
Q

define an organ

A

2+ tissue types arranged in a particular way to perform a particular function/set of functions

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45
Q

define and organ system

A

individual organs are a part of a system that works together for particular functions

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46
Q

define cephalization

A

the concentration of sensory organs and nervous tissues at the anterior (head) end of an organism

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47
Q

what form of symmetry is often found with cephalization?

A

bilateral symmetry

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48
Q

give 4 reasons why movement is essential to an organism

A

finding a mate
acquiring food
avoiding predators
finding a suitable habitat

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49
Q

what is bipedal locomation?

A

ability to walk on 2 legs

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50
Q

how do humans benefit from bipedal locomotion? (3)

A

can carry more things
saves energy
can see at a taller frame

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51
Q

where is most water in the human body found?

A

intracellularly

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52
Q

what is the main benefit of having extracellular fluid?

A

cells get nutrients from it and can remove waste into it

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53
Q

extracellular fluid is also known as what?

A

the internal environment

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54
Q

define homeostasis

A

stability of the internal environment of an individual allowed by internal coordinated processes
OR anything that means consistency or stability in an organism

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55
Q

why does epithelium play a role in homeostasis?

A

it is closest to the external environment

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56
Q

what are the 2 approaches to achieving homeostasis?

A

conformation and regulation

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57
Q

how do the bodies of organisms regulate heat exchange in skin?

A

blood vessels constrict or dilate depending on the temperature

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58
Q

how do blood vessels change shape when it is cold?

A

vessels near the surface constrict to reduce heat loss
more internal vessels dilate to allow blood to bypass the colder surface vessels

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59
Q

how do blood vessels change shape when it is hot?

A

vessels near the surface dilate to lose heat
more internal vessels constrict to push blood toward the skin’s surface

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60
Q

name a few parameters of homeostasis (7)

A

temperature regulation
pH
behavioral responses
concentrations of O2, CO2, and Na+
blood pressure
heartbeat & respiratory rate
blood fluids

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61
Q

what does the Q10 temp coefficient measure?

A

the sensitivity of a reaction or physiological process to a change in temperature

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62
Q

what is the Q10 temp coefficient?

A

Rate of reaction at temp A
divided by
Rate of reaction at temp A - 10º

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63
Q

define homeotherms and give examples of them

A

animals that keep a steady internal body temp (warm-blooded)
ex. birds and mammals

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64
Q

define poikilotherms and give examples of them

A

animals that vary their body temp along with the environment (cold-blooded)
ex. frogs, lizards, fish

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65
Q

homeotherms have a ______ (higher/lower) metabolic rate than poikilotherms, no matter the external temp

A

higher always

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66
Q

reindeer are hometherms - how do they survive in extreme temperatures?

A

natural insulation with thick fur & hollow hairs full of nonmoving air (nonmoving air is warmer than moving air)

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67
Q

define an endotherm

A

an animal that primarily gets heat from internal sources (metabolism)

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68
Q

define an ectotherm

A

an animal that obtains heat primarily from external sources

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69
Q

endotherms have membranes that leak ions _____ (more/less) than ectotherms

A

more

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70
Q

what kind of tissue (+ 2 colors) do homeotherms have to keep them warm? which color of this tissue produces heat?

A

brown and white adipose (fat) tissue
brown produces heat

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71
Q

define nonshivering thermogenesis

A

an increase in metabolic heat production derived from metabolizing brown fat tissue

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72
Q

what types of organisms typically have the nonshivering thermogenesis mechanism?

A

small mammals

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73
Q

what 3 locations in the body is brown adipose tissue located?

A

heart, kidney, and vertebral column

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74
Q

why do some small animals utilize a protective microenvironment

A

to stay warmer - nonmoving air closer to the ground is warmer than moving air

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75
Q

define acclimatization
give 2 examples

A

an adjustment of behavior and/or physiology to be better suited for the environment
ex. reindeer metabolize slower in the winter
ex. humans wear more clothes when it’s cold

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76
Q

define regional hypothermia

A

a phenomenon in which the appendage tissues of an animal are cooler than body core tissues

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77
Q

what is the purpose of regional hypothermia?

A

body heat is conserved by only keeping core body tissues warm & because they’re already cold, appendages don’t lose heat when walking on ice or snow

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78
Q

define countercurrent flow

A

an exchange of heat that occurs between 2 closely positioned fluid streams (i.e. blood streams) flowing in opposite directions

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79
Q

what are two animal mechanisms for releasing heat by evaporative cooling?

A

panting and sweating promote loss of heat

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80
Q

what are the 4 main mechanisms of external heat exchange?

A

radiation
convection
conduction
evaporation

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81
Q

define convection in terms of heat exchange

A

the process of heat transfer (in fluids/gases) by the movement of matter

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82
Q

define evaporation

A

removal of water from body surfaces/breathing passages by the environment in order to cool down

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83
Q

define hibernation

A

a state with low body temps and thermal conformity persisting for long periods of time (typically in winter)

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84
Q

which types of animals are most likely to hibernate?

A

small mammals

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85
Q

define heterotherms

A

homeothermic animals during summer but hibernate (cool down body temp) in winter

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86
Q

how does body temp change during hibernation?

A

becomes similar to external environment temperature

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87
Q

define thermoregulation

A

ability to control one’s own body temperature

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88
Q

adaptations for thermoregulation are likely driven by what?

A

changes in DNA

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89
Q

animals have what kind of metabolism?

A

heterotrophic metabolism

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90
Q

it is important to eat because each cell in our body breaks down & rebuilds what % of protein molecules every day?

A

2-3%

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91
Q

it is important to eat because each cell uses how many ATP molecules every day?

A

more than 10^14

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92
Q

name 3 types of feeding by animals

A

predation, suspension feeding, and symbiosis

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93
Q

define suspension feeding(/filter feeding)

A

in aquatic animals, a method of obtaining food by collecting small food particles suspended in the water

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94
Q

define symbiosis/a symbiotic relationship

A

microbes live within the animals’ bodies and synthesize food molecules that are directly transferred to the animals as food

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95
Q

homeostatic mechanisms are dependent on which 2 things?

A

regulation and feedback

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96
Q

name the 4 components of homeostatic mechanisms

A

stressor, sensor with receptor, integrator, and effector

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97
Q

define a homeostatic stressor

A

something that causes deviation away from a set point

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98
Q

what’s the purpose of a homeostatic sensor with receptor?

A

to detect the error signal produced by the stressor causing a deviation from a set point

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99
Q

what’s the purpose of a homeostatic integrator?

A

to receive information from the sensor and send compensatory signals to the effectors

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100
Q

define a homeostatic effector

A

something that produces a change to the internal environment in order to overcome result produced by the stressor

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101
Q

define regulatory system feedback

A

information about the relationship between the set point of the system and its current state

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102
Q

define regulatory feedforward

A

changes the set point of a regulatory system in anticipation of a stressor to amplify the response

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103
Q

define regulatory positive feedback

A

a type of control that acts to increase differences that arise between the level of a controlled variable and its set point

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104
Q

define regulatory negative feedback

A

a type of control that acts to reduce differences that arise between the level of a controlled variable and its set point

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105
Q

positive feedback usually _____ (stabilizes/destabilizes) a system and negative usually _____ (stabilizes/destabilizes) it

A

destabilizes, stabilizes

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106
Q

does homeostasis have positive feedback?

A

no

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107
Q

which region of our body controls body temperature?

A

the hypothalamus

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108
Q

mammalian birth is an example of what kind of feedback loop?

A

a positive feedback loop

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109
Q

how does a feedforward system work?

A

an organism reacts to a stimulus that is not the end product of the pathway by changing downstream responses to the stimulus

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110
Q

high amounts of lac operons being present when lactose is present is an example of a _______ (feedforward/feedback) system

A

feedforward

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111
Q

high amounts of lac operons being present when glucose is low is an example of a ______ (feedforward/feedback) system

A

feedback

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112
Q

when there is no lactose present, the repressor does what? why?

A

binds to the operator so that transcription is blocked and no lactose is metabolized

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113
Q

when there is lactose present, the repressor does what? why?

A

repressor inactivates and does not bind to the operator - production of allolactose (by reactant lactose) inhibits transcription

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114
Q

what is the purpose of breathing?

A

to get enough glucose and oxygen to the mitochondria

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115
Q

what is the 4 step pathway of oxygen in the human body?

A

1) O2 into lungs
2) O2 crosses two layers of simple epithelia
3) O2 moves into blood and down to muscle
4) O2 crosses the blood epithelial wall into cell membrane of muscle cell, then into cytoplasm & enters the mitochondria

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116
Q

what is the 4 step pathway of oxygen in a dog’s body?

A

1) breathing O2 into lungs and CO2 out by bulk flow
2) a build up of O2 causes diffusion into blood
3) O2 is transported to tissues by bulk flow
4) O2 is taken into mitochondria for ATP production

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117
Q

why do our cells need oxygen?

A

electrons are released when our body breaks down food to make ATP - the electrons are transferred to O2 molecules

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118
Q

what are the 2 respiratory gases?

A

O2 and CO2

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119
Q

what are the two ways that air moves into & through the bodies of animals?

A

bulk flow and diffusion

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120
Q

define bulk flow

A

the flow of gases from one place to another from an area of high to low pressure

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121
Q

bulk flow is used to transport respiratory gases _____ (short/long) distances and diffusion is used to transport respiratory gases _____ (short/long) distances

A

long, short

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122
Q

define diffusion

A

particles move toward a state of equilibrium at random

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123
Q

Fick’s law is used to determine what?

A

the rate of diffusion per unit of cross-sectional area

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124
Q

what is the formula of Fick’s law?

A

concentration 1 - concentration 2
divided by
length

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125
Q

what is the 4 step process of alternation of bulk flow and diffusion?

A

1) bulk flow moves in O2 via breathing
2) diffusion moves particle into lungs and blood
3) bulk flow circulates the blood
4) diffusion of particles out of the blood capillary to the cell membrane, cytoplasm, and mitochondria

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126
Q

define partial pressure of a gas

A

the part of the total pressure exerted by a certain gas in a gas mixture

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127
Q

what are gas exchange membranes?

A

location where respiratory gases move between an animal’s environment and their internal tissues

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128
Q

what is breathing (external respiration)

A

moving O2 into lungs and CO2 out of lungs

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129
Q

what is the importance of large surface areas of breathing organs?

A

to allow for as much gas exchange as possible

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130
Q

name an animal that completes all gas exchange through their skin (instead of with breathing organs)

A

lungless salamander

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131
Q

how did gills and lungs evolve to perform more gas exchange?

A

tissue folding and branching allows for a larger surface area

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132
Q

what is the square area of human breathing membranes?

A

~130m^2

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133
Q

how are gills folded & branched?

A

branching and folding outwards

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134
Q

how are lungs folded and branched?

A

branching and folding inwards

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135
Q

what are the 2 types of air flow direction for breathing?

A

tidal and unidirectional

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136
Q

define tidal air flow

A

air flow changes direction in same passages - flows in one way and out the same way

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137
Q

define unidirectional air flow

A

water (and O2) is pumped one direction - flows in one way and out another

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138
Q

define perfusion

A

fast blood flow through capillaries or smaller blood vessels of a tissue

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139
Q

what is the benefit of quick blood perfusion?

A

circulatory system is able to distribute oxygen to cells quicker

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140
Q

does diffusion happen faster in air or liquid?
by how much?

A

air by 200,000 times

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141
Q

does O2 or CO2 dissolve better in water?

A

CO2 dissolves much easier than O2 in water

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142
Q

is there higher or lower levels of O2 in warm water compared to cold?

A

warm water = lower O2

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143
Q

what is the direction of water through gills?

A

water enters through mouth, over gills, and exits via their opercular cavities under opercular flaps

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144
Q

terrestrial vertebrates mostly have what type of air flow?

A

tidal air flow (changes direction)

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145
Q

what two types of terrestrial animals have unidirectional air flow? why?

A

birds and some crocodiles
these animals have rigid breathing structures (volume doesn’t change during inhalation/exhalation)

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146
Q

tracheal breathing systems are found in what kind of animals?

A

insects

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147
Q

define a tracheal breathing system

A

in insects - airways (called tracheae) branch throughout body so there are airways near all cells

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148
Q

what is the benefit of a tracheal breathing system?

A

fast diffusion - O2 is brought right to the cells - no need for a circulatory system

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149
Q

T or F: tracheole tips touch almost every cell in an insect’s body

A

true

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150
Q

some animals (flatworms & sponges) don’t have specialized breathing organs - why?

A

because they take in O2 over their body surface
low metabolic rate and most cells are close to the surface

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151
Q

define a trachea (in humans)

A

principle tube leading into lungs from mouth cavity

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152
Q

human trachea branches into how many tubes?

A

two tubes - each of which branches out extensively

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153
Q

each final branch in the human lunch has a what?

A

alveolar sac (with a high surface area)

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154
Q

define conducting airways (in lungs of animals)

A

airways that do not participate in the exchange of respiratory gases between air and blood, but just move air in and out of the lungs

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155
Q

define respiratory airways

A

airways in the lungs where O2 and CO2 are exchanged between the air and blood

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156
Q

define tidal volume

A

how much air can be moved in and out in a mammal’s lung

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157
Q

define resting tidal volume

A

the normal amount of air exchanged per breath when at rest

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158
Q

define maximal tidal volume

A

volume about 10x greater than resting tidal volume

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159
Q

define diaphragm

A

a sheet of muscle connected to the rib cage

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160
Q

at rest, inhalation is _____ (active/passive) and exhalation is _____ (active/passive)

A

active, passive

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161
Q

define exhalation

A

elastic recoil of lung tissues - results in relaxed muscles

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162
Q

define inhalation

A

muscles of diaphragm and some intercostal muscles (between ribs) contract

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163
Q

T or F: during exercise, inhalation is active and exhalation is passive

A

false - both inhalation and exhalation are active during exercise

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164
Q

breathing is under what kind of feedback by carbon dioxide?

A

negative feedback control

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165
Q

how does carbon dioxide’s negative feedback control work?

A

more CO2 = more H+ ion is blood = more acidic blood (bad)
this increase in H+ causes increased ventilation to get rid of CO2 faster to decrease H+ ions

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166
Q

what portions of the brain stem regulate breathing rhythm?

A

pre-Botzinger complexes (2)

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167
Q

what is the origin of breathing rhythm in humans?

A

the medulla

168
Q

T or F: humans can breathe normally with only a portion of the brain stem intact

A

false: humans need an entire healthy brainstem intact to breathe

169
Q

what 4 parts of the body is the circulatory system concentrated in?

A

heart, brain, abdomen, pelvis

170
Q

define the circulatory system

A

a pump made of muscle (heart), fluid (blood), and conduits (blood vessels)

171
Q

what is the purpose of the circulatory system?

A

to transport materials throughout the body

172
Q

define a closed circulatory system

A

blood is contained within the blood vessels - not free in a cavity

173
Q

define an open circulatory system

A

blood flows freely through cavities - no vessels to conduct

174
Q

insects have what kind of breathing system?
what is the purpose of their circulatory systems?

A

tracheal
insects use circulatory systems for transporting nutrients, not gasses

175
Q

define a water vascular system

A

in some marine animals, a network of water-filled canals that functions in gas exchange, locomotion, and feeding in place of a circulatory system

176
Q

who has closed circulatory systems?

A

all vertebrates, cephalopod mollusks, and annelid worms

177
Q

define arteries

A

large blood vessels that carry blood AWAY from the heart

178
Q

define veins

A

large blood vessels that carry blood TOWARD the heart

179
Q

animals with closed circulatory systems have ____ (high/low) blood pressures to drive flow of O2

A

high blood pressures (increased metabolic rate)

180
Q

define the lumen

A

the space in the center of large blood vessels that blood flows through

181
Q

describe vascular endothelium

A

simple epithelium that surrounds the lumen

182
Q

arteries have elastic tissue and smooth muscle - why?

A

to allow them to stretch and withstand high pressures

183
Q

what is the purpose of valves in veins?

A

to prevent backflow of blood as a result of low pressures

184
Q

define microcirculation

A

the part of a closed circulatory system that consists of the smallest diameter blood vessels

185
Q

what are the three types of small blood vessels?

A

arterioles, capillaries, and venules

186
Q

T or F: microcirculation is only found in closed circulatory systems

A

true

187
Q

define capillary beds

A

web-like structures of capillaries where exchange of oxygen and nutrients occur

188
Q

blood stays in which vessels as it moves through organs and tissues?

A

microcirculation vessels

189
Q

where are O2, CO2, and materials exchanged between blood and cells?

A

in the capillaries

190
Q

define capillary pores

A

gaps between endothelial cells (in capillaries)

191
Q

what is the purpose of capillary pores?

A

to make exchange of materials easier

192
Q

what are arterioles controlled by?

A

the autonomic nervous system (and other mechanisms)

193
Q

define vasoconstriction

A

contraction of muscles to make lumen smaller

194
Q

define vasodilation

A

relaxation of muscle to make lumen larger

195
Q

what is the purpose of vasoconstriction and vasodilation?

A

controls the rate of blood flow

196
Q

who has open circulatory systems?

A

arthropods and most mollusks

197
Q

in an open circulatory system, the heart pumps blood into where?

A

arteries

198
Q

define respiratory pigments

A

blood pigments that undergo reversible combination with O2 and are thus able to carry O2 between different places in the body

199
Q

give two respiratory pigments and where you find them

A

hemoglobin - humans
hemocyanin - other animals

200
Q

define blood plasma

A

watery solution in which red blood cells and/or other blood cells are suspended - part of the blood other than cells

201
Q

define red blood cells

A

a cell in the blood of an animal that contains hemoglobin and transports O2

202
Q

hemoglobin is a tetramer, which means what?

A

is has 4 polypeptide chains

203
Q

every hemoglobin molecule can hold how many oxygen molecules?

A

4

204
Q

respiratory pigments reversibly combine with O2 molecules - when are they released?

A

when surrounding areas have little O2

205
Q

define the heart

A

a discrete, localized pumping structure that propels blood

206
Q

define the myocardium

A

muscle tissue of the heart

207
Q

define cardiac output

A

the volume of blood pumped / minute

208
Q

define stroke volume

A

the volume of blood pumped / heartbeat

209
Q

the heart is myogenic in vertebrates - what does this mean?

A

the electrical impulse during each beating cycle originates in muscle cells

210
Q

define a cardiac cycle

A

a cycle where the heart contracts and relaxes

211
Q

define blood pressure

A

the point when the pressure in the blood exceeds the pressure in the environment of the animal

212
Q

EKG: the P wave corresponds to what?

A

depolarization of the muscle of the atria

213
Q

EKG: the Q, R, and S waves (together QRS complex) correspond to what?

A

depolarization of the ventricles

214
Q

EKG: the T wave corresponds to what?

A

repolarization of the ventricles

215
Q

define systolic blood pressure

A

no blood flow through arteries at all

216
Q

define diastolic blood pressure

A

max pressure that allows continuous flow

217
Q

define a simple vertebrate system & its path through the body

A

single circuit: heart –> gills –> body –> heart

218
Q

define a complex vertebrate system & its path through the body

A

double circuit: heart –> lungs –> heart –> body –> heart

219
Q

define autoregulatory mechanisms

A

each tissue controls its own blood flow

220
Q

regional autoregulation sets up what kind of problematic feedback?

A

a positive feedback loop

221
Q

define atherosclerosis

A

a buildup of lipids in vessels due to the “breaking” of the circulatory system

222
Q

in what way does the circulatory system contribute to maintaining homeostasis?

A

clotting helps animals maintain homeostasis after injury

223
Q

animals need nutrients for what two main reasons?

A

building tissue and growth

224
Q

define dietary minerals
which 4 elements are exempt from the list of dietary minerals but are still required by humans to live?

A

chemical elements that are required in cells & must be acquired from food exempts oxygen, carbon, hydrogen, and nitrogen

225
Q

animal growth requires what two things?

A

fatty acids and amino acids

226
Q

why do we need to eat continuously?

A

proteins and other chem building blocks are broken down every day and must be replaced

227
Q

what are the two forms of required energy?
do they do work?

A

heat - doesn’t do work
chem bond energy - created by digesting food & is converted to heat

228
Q

define nutrition

A

how animals ingest to meet their chemical substance and energy needs

229
Q

define an essential nutrient

A

a type of molecule that animals require but can’t make themselves

230
Q

what are the 4 essential nutrients?

A

amino acids, fatty acids, vitamins, essential minerals

231
Q

define metabolic rate

A

amount of energy the animal converts to heat per day

232
Q

an animal’s metabolic rate determines what?

A

how much they need to consume per day

233
Q

the faster an organism goes, the _____ (more/less) O2 is used and its metabolic rate _____ (increases/decreases)

A

more, increases

234
Q

what is basal metabolic rate (BMR)?

A

a standardized measure of metabolic rate at rest

235
Q

define a calorie

A

an amount of heat required to raise the temp of 1 gram of water by 1 degree C

236
Q

one kilocalorie = how many calories?

A

1000 calories

237
Q

proteins cannot be absorbed - how are they taken in then?

A

by digestive enzymes

238
Q

define digestion

A

the breakdown (by hydrolysis) of ingested food molecules into smaller chemical components that an animal is capable of absorbing and distributing to the tissues of the body

239
Q

define hydrolysis & give an example rxn

A

A chemical reaction that breaks a bond by inserting the components of water (AB + H2O → AH + BOH)

240
Q

what are the 4 functions of the digestive system?

A

digestion, absorption of nutrients, storage, and elimination of waste

241
Q

what organs does the foregut consist of?

A

mouth, esophagus, and stomach

242
Q

what organs does the midgut consist of?

A

small intestine

243
Q

what organs does the hindgut consist of?

A

large intestine & rectum

244
Q

define salivary glands

A

glands in mouth that discharge saliva to assist with the breakdown of foods (via enzymes in saliva)

245
Q

define intracellular fluid

A

liquid inside of cells

246
Q

define extracellular fluid

A

compartmental fluid outside of the cell

247
Q

define epithelia

A

sheet(s) of cells that cover bodies or organs

248
Q

what are 3 functions of epithelia?

A

pump ions, secretion, and sensing

249
Q

define cell membranes

A

separate a cell’s interior from the environment

250
Q

define division of labor

A

cells are specialized for particular functions so not each cell has to do everything

251
Q

define tissue

A

an assemblage of cells that are a similar type

252
Q

what is the importance of the midgut in mammals?

A

majority of digestion and absorption occur here - has a large surface area

253
Q

define absorption (digestive)

A

the uptake of products of digestion into the blood

254
Q

how does the mouth contribute to food processing?

A

enzymes in saliva begin to break down food

255
Q

how does the stomach contribute to food processing?

A

acid and mechanical churning further break down food

256
Q

how do the intestines contribute to food processing?

A

small molecules and water are absorbed and transported into the blood

257
Q

define a ruminant

A

hoofed herbivorous grazing mammals that are able to acquire nutrients from plant-based food by fermenting it in a specialized stomach prior to digestion via microbes

258
Q

why did ruminants evolve?

A

no vertebrate animal has enzymes alone that are able to digest cellulose - ruminants’ symbiotic relationship with microbes in their stomachs allow them to obtain nutrients from cellulose

259
Q

what kind of feedback system is the process of maintaining a constant blood glucose level?

A

negative feedback system

260
Q

how does the body fix a too low blood glucose level?

A

detection –> pancreas secretes glucagon (alpha cells) –> glucagon is broken down in the liver –> glucose is released into blood & blood glucose levels rise

261
Q

how does the body fix a too high blood glucose level?

A

detection –> pancreas secretes insulin (beta cells) –> stimulates uptake of glucose by cells –> glucose is used for metabolism, fat synth, and glycogen synth & blood glucose drops

262
Q

what is type 2 diabetes?

A

a resistance to insulin –> leads to too high blood glucose levels

263
Q

what parts of the human body comprises the central nervous system (CNS)?

A

the brain and spinal cord

264
Q

what parts of the body comprises the peripheral nervous system (PNS)

A

everything besides the brain and spinal cord

265
Q

how are spinal nerves organized?

A

come in pairs, one on each side of body along the length of spinal cord

266
Q

what are other types of nervous systems other than a humans?

A

nerve nets & ganglia

267
Q

what 5 things does the nervous system control?

A

sensory, integrative, analytical, homeostatic, and motor functions

268
Q

define neurons & their shape

A

nerve cells - small & have elongated shape

269
Q

define nerves

A

nerve bundles in the PNS

270
Q

define sensory neurons

A

neurons (individual cells) that carry signals from sense organs to the CNS

271
Q

define motor neurons

A

neurons that carry signals to muscle cells

272
Q

how fast do mammals’ neurons transmit signals?

A

20-100 meters per second (<.02 seconds)

273
Q

neuron cells are fast & addressed - define addressed

A

signals are sent to specific target cells

274
Q

what defines an excitable cell?

A

their cell membranes can generate & conduct impulses or action potentials

275
Q

which cells are excitable?

A

only neurons in muscle cells

276
Q

define action potential

A

a state of reversed polarity of a cell membrane

277
Q

define depolarization

A

when the electrical polarity of a cell is changed - the inside of the cell is less negative (or now positive)

278
Q

define membrane potential

A

a charge difference across a cell membrane - accumulation of positive or negative charges near the membrane on either of its sides

279
Q

define resting membrane potential

A

when cell is at rest - membrane potential when its not firing an action potential

280
Q

T or F: resting potential takes energy to maintain

A

true

281
Q

define propagation/conduction

A

the process of action potential (reversed polarity) moving along the cell membrane in one direction

282
Q

define an axon’s current

A

the flow of electric charges from place to place

283
Q

define an axon’s voltage/potential difference

A

positive charges are connected in one place and negative charges are connected in a different place

284
Q

action potentials travel along what?

A

axons

285
Q

name 4 common anatomical features of neurons

A

set of dendrites
cell body
axon
set of presynaptic axon terminals

286
Q

define a synapse

A

the junction between a neuron and its target cell that allows for communication

287
Q

define a presynaptic cell

A

cell that conducts signals INto synapse

288
Q

define a postsynaptic cell

A

cell that conducts signals AWAY from synapse

289
Q

define dendrites of neurons

A

short cell processes/extensions that branch from cell body

290
Q

define a neuron’s cell body

A

has neuron’s nucleus and organelles and integrates signals

291
Q

define a neuron’s axon

A

long cell process for long-distance signal conduction

292
Q

define a neuron’s presynaptic axon terminals

A

swelling at end of axon that makes contact with other cells

293
Q

define myelin

A

concentric layers of cell membrane that wraps around a neuron’s axon

294
Q

what are two types of glial cells that electrically insulate an axon?

A

oligodendrocytes
Schwann cells

295
Q

define white matter
what is it named for?

A

parts of a nervous system with mostly myelinated axons
named for its glistening white appearance

296
Q

name 3 types of neurons

A

interneurons
sensory (afferent) neurons
motor (efferent) neurons

297
Q

what is the significance of interneurons?

A

they are confined to the CNS
make up most neurons of the CNS

298
Q

what are the functions of interneurons?

A

command & information-storage functions

299
Q

what are the functions of sensory neurons?

A

carry signals to CNS from sensory cells/organs

300
Q

what are the functions of motor neurons?

A

convey signals from CNS to effectors like muscles & glands

301
Q

define a glial cell

A

a type of cell found in the nervous system that are not neurons

302
Q

T or F: glial cells are excitable and can conduct action potentials

A

false - glial cells are not excitable and therefore cannot conduct action potentials

303
Q

what are 3 functions of glial cells in the brain?

A

metabolic support for neurons
regulating extracellular fluid composition
immune functions

304
Q

what is the function of glial cells in development?

A

they guide growing neurons in the CNS

305
Q

what is the most abundant cell in the brain?

A

astrocyte glial cells

306
Q

what is a neurotransmitter?

A

tiny chemical compound molecules that are released from the end of a presynaptic cell to the postsynaptic cell

307
Q

neurotransmitters can do 2 things to a postsynaptic cell - what are they?

A

excite or inhibit

308
Q

what are 3 common neurotransmitters?

A

norepinephrine
dopamine
serotonin

309
Q

sense organs detect…

A

physical or chemical stimuli in the environment

310
Q

what detects sensory stimuli?

A

receptor proteins

311
Q

reception of stimuli results in… (2 answers)

A

an action potential in receptors cell OR in a release of a signal that eventually produces an action potential in a neuron

312
Q

define sensory receptor cells

A

cells (usually neurons) that transform energy of a stimulus into an electrical signal

313
Q

define transduction (sensory)

A

a sensory receptor cell produces an electrical signal from the produces stimulus energy

314
Q

a rod cell’s membrane in the light-sensitive part of the cell is highly folded - why?

A

it increases surface area, which allows for more photoreceptor molecules to be present

315
Q

define sensory receptor proteins

A

membrane proteins in sensory receptor cells that first detect a stimulus & produce a change in the receptor cell’s membrane potential

316
Q

define receptor potential

A

a graded change in membrane potential

317
Q

what are the 2 receptor cell types?

A

ionotropic
metabotropic

318
Q

what characterizes an ionotropic receptor cell?

A

it has a receptor protein that is a stimulus-gated Na+ channel

319
Q

what characterizes a metabotropic receptor cell?

A

it has a receptor protein that activates a G protein

320
Q

define mechanoreceptors
are they usually ionotropic or metabotropic?

A

cells that respond to mechanical distortion of their cell membrane
usually ionotropic

321
Q

define thermoreceptors
are they usually ionotropic or metabotropic?

A

cells that detect heat & cold
usually ionotropic

322
Q

define chemoreceptors
are they usually ionotropic or metabotropic?

A

cells that respond to a presence or absence of specific chemicals
usually metabotropic

323
Q

define olfaction

A

a sense of smell

324
Q

auditory senses work via…

A

alternating high and low sound pressure waves

325
Q

define the cochlea

A

a coiled, fluid-filled tube where sound energy is transduced to electric signals

326
Q

define the basilar membrane

A

a membrane in the human inner ear that flexes in response to sound waves and activates hair cells

327
Q

T or F: the basilar membrane flexes at the same location in response to both high and low pitches of sound

A

false - the membrane flexes at different locations depending on the pitch of sound

328
Q

simple visual systems can…

A

sense and respond to light

329
Q

more complex visual systems can…

A

see more detailed images of the environment

330
Q

define photoreceptors

A

sensory receptor cells that are light sensitive

331
Q

define the pupil of the human eye

A

where light enters the light-sensing part of the eye

332
Q

what are the 4 steps of light processing in the human eye

A

light comes into eye through neurons
light is absorbed by rods & cones
info from rods and cones is processed in nuclei
info meets on ganglion cells, which send action potential to brain

333
Q

rods are…

A

specialized neurons - photoreceptor cells

334
Q

cones are…

A

specialized neurons - photoreceptor cells that allow color vision

335
Q

rods & cones don’t produce action potentials - what do they do instead?

A

make graded membrane potentials

336
Q

define compound eyes
what animals are they found in?

A

eyes composed of many individual optical units called ommatidia
found in arthropods

337
Q

what do bats use to find prey?

A

sound echoes (sonar) for navigation

338
Q

how to bats use sonar?

A

their larynx (voice box) makes high-frequency sound waves that bounce off surfaces

339
Q

bats have specialized _____ for sensing high-frequency sound waves

A

basilar membranes

340
Q

what is a lateral line system?
who is it found in?

A

a sensory organ that detects changes in pressure and movement in water
found in fish and amphibians

341
Q

olfactory sensory receptors can sense odorants that bind to receptors on what?

A

chemosensitive hairs that project into mucus

342
Q

action potentials produced in response to binding of odorants to membrane receptors are sent to where?

A

olfactory interneurons

343
Q

what is the purpose olfactory interneurons?

A

they integrate odorant info received by receptors before sending it to the brain

344
Q

what are taste buds?

A

clusters of chemosensory receptor cells

345
Q

define centralization of the nervous system

A

the tendency for neurons to be clustered into centralized, integrating organs

346
Q

define the brain (nervous system)

A

the largest part of the CNS with the most neurons

347
Q

give two examples of animals with simple nercous systems

A

sea anemone, sea star

348
Q

give 4 examples of animals with more complex nervous systems

A

flatworm, squid (mollusk), earthworm, humans

349
Q

what defines a complex nervous system?

A

having both a central and peripheral nervous system

350
Q

another name for the autonomic nervous system is…

A

involuntary nervous system

351
Q

define autonomic (internal effectors)

A

effectors controlled by the ANS & not skeletal muscle

352
Q

what are the 3 divisions of the autonomic nervous system?

A

enteric, sympathetic, parasympathetic

353
Q

where is the enteric ANS found?

A

inside gut wall

354
Q

where is the sympathetic ANS found?

A

connected to the CNS via the thoracic and lumbar spinal nerves

355
Q

where is the parasympathetic ANS found?

A

connected to the CNS via cranial and sacral nerves

356
Q

define ganglion

A

a discrete, anatomically clustered set of neuron cell bodies in the PNS

357
Q

what is the function of the sympathetic ANS?

A

immediate response (fight or flight)

358
Q

what is the function of the parasympathetic ANS?

A

reaction in more restful situations (rest & digest)

359
Q

do spinal reflexes come from the brain or the spine?

A

spine

360
Q

how do spinal reflexes work?

A

there is initiation of motor neuronal signals in response to sensory neuronal signals in the spinal cord

361
Q

define binocular vision

A

having 2 eyes that show overlapping visual fields

362
Q

define the optic chiasm

A

place where 2 optic nerves meet

363
Q

where is the cerebral cortex located in the brain

A

outermost layer of the cerebral hemishperes

364
Q

what is the cerebral cortex made of (cell-wise)?

A

a thin layer of cell bodies ~4 mm thick

365
Q

what regions of the brain is the forebrain comprised of?

A

cerebrum, thalamus, and hypothalamus

366
Q

what regions of the brain is the hindbrain comprised of?

A

pons, medulla, & cerebellum

367
Q

increasing body wait is typically associated with _____ (increasing/decreasing) brain weight

A

increasing

368
Q

why does a fish have a small cerebellum?

A

it is mostly used for olfactory sense

369
Q

what 3 functions does a mammal use its large cerebellum for?

A

memory, reasoning, and processing of sensory & motor functions

370
Q

define the amygdala

A

brain center responsible for emotion & memory of fear

371
Q

what is the purpose of skeletal muscle?

A

provides power for locomotion

372
Q

define contraction (in muscle)

A

development of a force

373
Q

what is sliding-filament theory?

A

during contraction, small filaments in cells seem to slide past each other

374
Q

muscle fiber is another term for…

A

a muscle cell

375
Q

define actin

A

a contractile protein in muscle fiber (along with myosin)

376
Q

define actin & myosin filaments

A

thin, organized molecules of actin or myosin

377
Q

define myosin (muscle)

A

a contractile protein in muscle fiber (along with actin)

378
Q

define myofibrils

A

long, longitudinally oriented internal components of a muscle fiber

379
Q

what are myofibrils made of?

A

actin and myosin

380
Q

define a sarcomere

A

a contractile unit of muscle cells - repeating units of myofibril

381
Q

define titin

A

molecules of a protein that hold together thick myosin filaments

382
Q

what is the purpose of titin?

A

it holds myosin together and returns sarcomeres to their shorter length after they get stretched

383
Q

what is tropomyosin & what are its 3 functions?

A

a protein that twists around each actin chain, controls interactions between actin & myosin, and blocks/unblocks myosin-binding sites

384
Q

what is troponin & what are its 2 functions?

A

protein molecules that are attached to tropomyosin. they help control position of tropomyosin and have a role in controlling interactions of actin & myosin

385
Q

what are cross-bridges?

A

bridge-like links between actin and myosin filaments connected by myosin heads

386
Q

what does innervate mean?

A

to provide neural input

387
Q

define a neuromuscular junction

A

a synapse where a motor neuron axon makes contact with a muscle fiber

388
Q

what is excitation?

A

when a nerve impulse arrives at a neuromuscular junction & initiates an action potential

389
Q

what is excitation-contraction coupling?

A

a process where electrical excitation of a membrane leads to contractile activity by proteins

390
Q

define a sarcoplasmic reticulum

A

an endoplasmic reticulum of a muscle cell used for Ca2+ storage and release

391
Q

define endoskeleton

A

skeleton inside other tissues (humans - skin)

392
Q

define exoskeleton

A

a skeleton that encases the rest of the body

393
Q

what is bone made of?

A

an extracellular matrix of collagen protein fibers with insoluble calcium phosphate crystals among them

394
Q

define cartilage

A

a flexible skeletal tissue that allows for flexibility

395
Q

define joints

A

places where bone and muscles work together

396
Q

define tendons

A

flexible connective tissue that attaches muscle and bone

397
Q

define an antagonistic pair

A

two muscles that work together in opposite actions - one contracts & the other relaxes

398
Q

why are antagonistic pairs necessary?

A

because muscles can only contract & relax in one direction

399
Q

where are the muscles for swimming located in a fish?

A

in the middle of its body (not the tail)

400
Q

what are two types of muscle cells in fish?

A

slow oxidative cells and fast glycolytic cells

401
Q

what are slow oxidative cells?

A

red slow-twitch cells

402
Q

what are fast glycolytic cells?

A

white fast-twitch cells

403
Q

what is a hydrostatic skeleton

A

when a part of/whole body can become stiff like a skeleton due to high fluid pressure inside

404
Q

define power of muscle cells

A

the rate at which work is done

405
Q

define an oxidative system

A

system where the citric acid cycle and electron transport is conducted

406
Q

define a glycolytic system

A

system that uses anaerobic glycolysis to produce ATP

407
Q

define an immediate system

A

a system that uses preformed ATP in cells when contraction begins

408
Q

the speed of contraction is ____ (fast/slow) in fast muscle fiber and ____ (fast/slow) in slow muscle fiber

A

fast, slow

409
Q

the force of contraction is ____ (weak/powerful) in fast muscle fiber and ____ (weak/powerful) in slow muscle fiber

A

weak, powerful

410
Q

the length of contraction is ____ (brief/sustained) in fast muscle fiber and ____ (brief/sustained) in slow muscle fiber

A

brief, sustained

411
Q

in fast muscle fiber, sarcomeres can have what kind of contraction?

A

either no contraction or complete contraction

412
Q

in slow muscle fiber, sarcomeres can have what kind of contraction?

A

partial contraction is possible

413
Q

what is the source of ATP in fast muscle fiber?

A

fermentation

414
Q

what is the source of ATP in slow muscle fiber?

A

aerobic respiration

415
Q

what is an example of a muscle with fast muscle fibers (humans)?

A

quadricep muscle

416
Q

what is an example of a muscle with slow muscle fibers (humans)?

A

the gluteus maximus

diversity of form and function (6 decks)

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