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diversity of form and function > module 1 - diversity of life (exam 1) > Flashcards

module 1 - diversity of life (exam 1) Flashcards

1
Q

what were early forms of classifying organisms?

A

noting similar features
animal/vegetable/mineral characteristics
microscopes to see microorganisms
identifying kingdoms (prokaryotes vs eukaryotes)

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2
Q

early classifications of organisms were largely based on _______ features

A

morphological

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3
Q

genetics were an important for understanding ________ when it came to classifications

A

understanding similarity between and among organisms

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4
Q

DNA is the material of _____ and is common to _____ organisms

A

inheritance, all

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5
Q

we resemble our relatives because we share many _____

A

alleles (specific versions of genes)

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6
Q

the most accurate measure of “relatedness” is….

A

how similar genomes are

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7
Q

the first widely compared genetic sequences were… because…

A

ribosomal RNA (rRNA)
because ribosomes must function in all living organisms and their sequences are short and evolve slowly

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8
Q

the three types of organisms are…

A

bacteria, archaea, eukarya

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9
Q

T or F: archaea is more closely related to bacteria than eukarya

A

false
archaea is more closely related to eukarya than bacteria

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10
Q

there are evolutionary remnants of bacteria present in today’s eukaryotes, such as ____ and ____

A

mitochondria and chloroplasts

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11
Q

what was one of the biggest clues that archaea were more closely related to eukarya than bacteria?

A

archaea and eukarya share similar ribosomal sensitivity to different drugs

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12
Q

what is gram staining?

A

process of dying microscopic bacteria in order to classify them

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13
Q

how does gram staining work?

A

gram dye easily binds to peptidoglycan, the makeup of the cell wall of some bacteria (these bacteria show up purple and are gram positive). bacteria that have an outer lipid bilayer instead of a peptidoglycan cell wall show up as pink and are gram negative since the dye cannot bind to their outer layer.

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14
Q

gram staining is useful for _____ of bacteria but not for creating ______

A

identification, phylogenies

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15
Q

what are the three shape types of bacteria?

A

spheres, rods, and spirals
(coccus, bacillus, helix)

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16
Q

how do bacteria move?

A

flagella, twisting, or gliding

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17
Q

how do bacteria communicate with each other?

A

via chemicals or light

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18
Q

how do bacteria reproduce?

A

asexually (fission)

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19
Q

what is horizontal (lateral) gene transfer?

A

between two already existing individuals, one picks up DNA from another (they don’t have to be closely related)
can complicate using sequences to determine phylogenies

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20
Q

what is vertical gene transfer?

A

DNA transfer generation to generation (like in multicellular organisms)

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21
Q

what are the three types of DNA transfer?

A

conjugation, transformation, transduction

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22
Q

describe DNA transfer by conjugation

A

DNA (usually a plasmid) from a donor cell is transferred through a pilus into the recipient cell (2 live organisms)

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23
Q

describe DNA transfer by transformation

A

DNA is released into the environment by dead cell(s) is taken up by a live recipient cell

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24
Q

describe DNA transfer by transduction

A

DNA is transferred from a virus-infected donor to a recipient cell by the virus

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25
Q

what are obligate anaerobes?

A

organisms that oxygen is poisonous to (live in oxygen-free environments)

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26
Q

what are obligate aerobes?

A

prokaryotes that require oxygen

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27
Q

what are facultative anaerobes?

A

prokaryotes that can use either aerobic or anaerobic respiration

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28
Q

define photoautotrophs

A

organisms that convert light energy into sugars for themselves

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29
Q

who is responsible for converting earth’s atmosphere to aerobic?

A

photoautotrophs - O2 is a byproduct

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30
Q

define photoheterotrophs

A

organisms that harvest energy from light but rely on sugars made by other organisms

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31
Q

define chemoheterotrophs

A

organisms that feed on other organisms

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32
Q

define decomposers & how they work

A

organisms that break down dead bodies
return carbon to soil and the atmosphere (CO2)

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33
Q

define nitrogen fixers & why they’re necessary

A

convert N2 from atmosphere to NH3
NH3 is used by other organisms to make amino acids

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34
Q

the human body harbors how many times more bacteria than human cells?

A

4x

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35
Q

how do pathogens cause diseases? (4)

A

invade the body
evade immune system
multiply
produce toxins (main problem)

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36
Q

define endotoxins & exotoxins (in pathogens)

A

endo: host is exposed to these toxins when the bacteria is lysed (broken down) - results in fever, vomiting, diarrhea, etc.
exo: toxins are released by living bacteria - can be highly poisonous or fatal

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37
Q

how are viruses classified?

A

based on their nucleic acid type - RNA or DNA

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38
Q

what are the 4 types of viruses?

A

positive sense RNA
negative sense RNA
RNA retrovirus
DNA virus

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39
Q

give characteristics of a positive sense RNA virus (2)

A

the genome is the template for translation
RNA genome balled up in middle of virus allows for replication for further virus synthesis

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40
Q

give characteristics of a negative sense RNA virus (2)

A

RNA genome is NOT template for translation, but rather its complement
an enzyme creates the complementary RNA strand, which is the template for translation

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41
Q

what is the enzyme that produces the complementary strand for translation of a negative sense RNA virus?

A

(viral-encoded) RNA-dependent RNA polymerase

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42
Q

give characteristics of an RNA retrovirus (4 + ex.)

A

utilizes reverse transcriptase (RNA –> DNA)
proviral DNA is integrated into host’s genome
specific to vertebrate animals
winds up in host’s chromosomes
ex. HIV

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43
Q

give characteristics of a DNA virus (2)

A

genome = DNA
includes bacteriophages (viruses that infect bacteria)

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44
Q

what are the features of eukaryotes? (2)

A

organized, membrane-bound nucleus with linear chromosomes
membrane bound organelles such as mitochondria, chloroplasts, and digestive vacuoles

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45
Q

movement of a eukaryote relies on the ______

A

cytoskeleton
necessary for predation, changing shape, and increasing size

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46
Q

chloroplasts and mitochondria (energy metabolizers) presumably have origins of _____

A

free-living bacteria

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47
Q

eukaryotes have _______ DNA molecules with _________ of replication
these molecules carry many ______ and ________ regions

A

linear
multiple origins
genes, regulatory

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48
Q

all eukaryotes have a _______ life cycle (except rotifers)

A

sexual

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49
Q

how are opisthokonts characterized?
what kinds of eukaryotes do they include?

A

flagellum is posterior, single
includes multicellular animals, uni or multicellular fungi, and choanoflagellates

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50
Q

give characteristics of fungi (5)

A

cell wall of chitin
can be multi or unicellular (ex. yeast)
have absorptive heterotrophy (enzymes are secreted to break down food and then they’re reabsorbed b/c fungi don’t have internal digestive systems)
can feed on living and dead organisms
animals and fungi are very closely related

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51
Q

how are amoebozoans characterized? (4)
give examples of them

A

use pseudopods for motility
aquatic (fresh water)
eat via phagocytosis
predator, scavenger, or parasite
ex. physarum and dictyostelium

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52
Q

define characteristics of physarum (amoebozoans) (5)

A

a plasmodial slime mold
terrestrial (forests)
disperse, then aggregate to form fruiting bodies where spores form by meiosis
scavengers, ingest by endocytosis
move by cytoplasmic streaming

53
Q

define characteristics of dictyostelium (amoebozoans) (3)

A

a cellular slime mold
amoeba-like single cells aggregate into a “slug” when dry or starved
cells are retained and form spores

54
Q

how are rhizarians characterized? (3)
give examples of them

A

unicellular
aquatic
long pseudopods
ex. foraminiferans and radiolarians

55
Q

define characteristics of foraminiferans (rhizarians) (3)

A

external shells of calcium carbonate
source of limestone
pseudobods ensnare plankton

56
Q

define characteristics of radiolarians (rhizarians) (3)

A

glassy endoskeletons (rigid material inside cell)
include some of the largest unicellular eukaryotes
can have photosynthetic endosymbionts-dinoflagellates

57
Q

how are archaeplastids characterized? (1)
give examples of them

A

multicellular land plants
ex. red algae, green algae

58
Q

define characteristics of red algae (archaeplastids) (2)

A

marine
photosynthetic using chlorophyll a and phycoerythrin (a red protein-pigment)

59
Q

define characteristics and examples of green algae (2)

A

use chlorophyll a and b (like land plants)
can be uni or multicellular
ex. volvox (freshwater spheres of flagellated cells)
ex. sea lettuce (marine)

60
Q

how are stramenopiles characterized? (1)
give examples of them

A

have unequal flagella
ex. diatoms and brown algae

61
Q

T or F: all types of algae are related

A

false

62
Q

define characteristics of diatoms (stramenopiles) (5)

A

single-celled
silica in cells walls - upper and lower like a petri dish
found in fresh and salt water
photosynthetic-storage produces oils
used for diatomaceous earth-filtration

63
Q

define characteristics and examples of brown algae (4)

A

can be multicellular
photosynthetic - chlorophyll a & c + brown pigments
source of emulsifiers of ice cream
ex. sea palms & giant kelp

64
Q

what is endosymbiosis?

A

when a prokaryote engulfs another
origination of chloroplasts and mitrochondria

65
Q

what were the first clues of endosymbiosis (for chloroplasts)?

A

there is more than one membrane surrounding chloroplasts

66
Q

how are alveolates characterized? (2)
give examples of them

A

single celled
have sacs under cell membrane
ex. ciliates, dinoflagellates and apicomplexans

67
Q

define characteristics of ciliates (paramecium) (alveolates) (3)

A

body covered with cilia (motility)
fresh water
sex: equal exchange of nuclei

68
Q

define characteristics of apicomplexans (plasmodium) (alveolates) (3)

A

parasite causing malaria
life cycle in mosquitoes (human blood)
has nonfunctional chloroplasts

69
Q

how are excavates characterized? (3)
give examples

A

unicellular
often lack mitochondria
named for surface groove
ex. giardia (a diplomonad), euglena (a euglenid), and trypanosome (a kinetoplastid)

70
Q

define characteristics of giardia (excavate) (4)

A

a diplomonad
has many flagella
lacks mitochondria
freshwater - parasite causing giardiasis

71
Q

define characteristics of euglena (excavate) (3)

A

a euglenid
photosynthetic if in the dark
anterior flagellum

72
Q

define characteristics of trypanosomes (excavate) (2)

A

a kinetoplastid
parasite causing sleeping sickness

73
Q

what defines an animal? (4)

A

multicellular (cells adhere after mitotic division and can communicate with each other)
heterotrophic (eat other organisms)
internal digestion (vs fungi)
have motility (muscles, nerves, skeleton)

74
Q

animals are phylogenetically ________ and have a common __________

A

monophyletic, ancestor

75
Q

the common ancestor of animals is thought to resemble ___________

A

colonial choanoflagellates

76
Q

the earliest and simplest animals are ________-

A

marine

77
Q

define characteristics of sponges (4)

A

lack tissues (groups of similar cells acting as one)
body is cup-shaped
inner surface is composed of choanocytes (flagella beat to draw water through pores into central cavity)
lots of pores

78
Q

what characterizes dipoblastic animals? (5)
give examples

A

2 body layers
distinct organ systems
central gastrovascular cavity (1 hole for mouth & anus)
noncentralized nerve net (no brain)
aquatic - body supported by water
ex. ctenophores (comb jellies)
ex. cnidarians (jelly fish, corals)

79
Q

what are the 2 main differences between jelly fish & comb jellies vs more complex animals?

A

jelly fish/comb jellies have only 2 body layers in embryo and have radial symmetry
where more complex animals have 3 embryonic layers and bilateral symmetry

80
Q

deuterostomes and protostomes are both characterized by ________
what are the characterizations?

A

early embryonic development
deutero: anus formed before mouth
proto: mouth formed before anus

81
Q

most animals are _______ (invertebrates or vertebrates)

A

invertebrates (no backbone)

82
Q

what are the 3 major animal clades?

A

lophotrochozoans
ecdysozoans
deuterostomes

83
Q

what are the most successful types of animals & how many of them are there on earth?

A

arthropods
10^18 present on earth

84
Q

how are lophotrochozoans characterized? (2)
give examples of them

A

common larval form & a feeding apparatus
bryzoans, molluscs, and annelids

85
Q

how are ecdysozoans characterized? (1)
give examples of them

A

shed their exoskeleton to grow
arthropods and nemotodes

86
Q

how are deuterostomes characterized? (1)
give examples of them

A

mouth forms second (after anus)
echinoderms, hemichordates, vertebrates

87
Q

arthropod means:

A

“joint” and “limb”

88
Q

which types of animal are the most complex of the ecdysozoans?

A

arthropods

89
Q

what are characteristics of arthropods? (3)
give examples of them

A

body is supported by an exoskeleton of chitin (serves as both skeleton and skin)
a segmented body plan (metameric - repeated segments of a body & legs - like a centipede)
paired & jointed appendages
ex. crustaceans (lobster), hexapods (grasshopper), myriapods (millipede), chelicerates (horseshoe crab, spiders)

90
Q

what are the two other types of ecdysozoans besides arthropods?
give characteristics of them

A

tardigrades: limbs not jointed, can shrink up for up to a decade when they get too dry
nematodes: no limbs at all, no segmentation, scavengers, predators, or parasites (ex. round worm)

91
Q

define characteristics of lophotrochozoans (1)
give examples of them

A

have a lophophore (feeding structure) and a trochophore (free-living larval stage)
ex. molluscs, annelids, flatworms, rotifers, bryzoans

92
Q

give characteristics of molluscs (lophotrochozoan) (3)
give examples

A

have a foot (locomotion)
internal organs
mantle - secretes shell
ex. gastropods (snail), bivalves (clams), cephalopods (octopus)

93
Q

give characteristics of annelids (lophotrochozoans) (1)
give examples

A

have segmented bodies
ex. earthworms, leeches

94
Q

give characteristics of flatworms (lophotrochozoans) (2)
give examples

A

most are internal parasites
simple bodies - often lack digestive tracts
ex. flukes, tapeworms

95
Q

give characteristics of rotifers (lophotrochozoans) (2)

A

have a ciliated corona (sweeps food into mouth)
some species are only female

96
Q

give characteristics of bryozoans (lophotrochozoans) (1)

A

colonial organisms

97
Q

what is the difference between radial and bilateral symmetry?

A

radial: any plane along the main body axis divides the animal into similar halves
bilateral: only a single plane through the anterior-posterior divides the animal into mirror image halves

98
Q

give characteristics of echinoderms (3)

A

most are radially symmetric as adults
larvae are bilaterally symmetric
move and feed using “tube feet” - can attach to surfaces and/or food

99
Q

give characteristics of chordates (4)
give examples of them

A

have a dorsal, hollow nerve cord (like a spinal cord)
postanal tail for locomotion
have a notochord for flexible support (embryonic only in some)
pharyngeal slits for gas exchange
examples: lancelets, tunicates, and vertebrates

100
Q

half of all vertebrate species (~27,000) are what?
what is significant about them?

A

ray-finned fish
they posses jaws - one of the first important innovations

101
Q

give characteristics of jawed fishes (2)
give examples

A

can be either cartilaginous or bony
lobe-fins
examples: sharks, rays

102
Q

what are the most primitive tetrapods?
give characteristics (3) and examples of them

A

amphibians
have moist skin, require water for eggs (no shell), and require wet habitats
examples: frogs, salamanders, caecilians (limbs lost in adulthood)

103
Q

what are some of the vertebrate innovations? (6)

A

an internal skeleton
primarily bone instead of cartilage
jointed fins
nares (nose-like thing for breathing air)
terrestrial limbs
amniotic eggs to withstand drying conditions

104
Q

what is the most important vertebrate innovation?

A

amniotic eggs to withstand drying conditions

105
Q

amniotes include which types of animals?

A

reptiles and mammals

106
Q

give characteristics of reptiles (2)
give examples

A

amniotic egg provides “private pond” to keep moist during development
have scales (keratin vs bone-derived scales of fish)
examples: turtles, tuataras, squamates (snakes/lizards), crocodilians, dinosaurs

107
Q

give characteristics of mammals (5)
give examples

A

mammary glands
sweat glands
4-chambered heart
hair
varying types of teeth
examples: prototherians (lay eggs), marsupials (newborns move to pouch), and eutherians (more developed at birth)

108
Q

what are the two types of cellularity in plants

A

colonial organisms - multiple cells adhere but are not differentiated (1 type of cell in entire organism)
multicellular - more than one cell type

109
Q

what are the differences & similarities of all green plants vs only land plants?

A

all green plants: chlorophyll a and b, starch for storage, cellulose in cell walls
only land plants: spores, apical meristem-localized growth, plasmodesmata (cell communication)

110
Q

what are the advantageous innovations of land plants? (5)

A

vascular tissue - cells specialized for transport of fluids allow increased growth and size
leaves - specialized organ for photosynthesis
roots - uptake of water and minerals
seeds - next generation dispersed with food (give offspring inc. chance of survival)
flowers - pollinators enable wide crossing, which increases diversity

111
Q

all land plants have what kind of reproduction system?
what does it consist of?

A

alternation of generations - separate, multicellular bodies that perform either fertilization or meiosis
sporophyte and gametophyte

112
Q

explain a sporophyte

A

produces cells that undergo meiosis
in diploid (2n) stage
Fertilization –> zygote –> mitosis –> multicellular sporophyte –> meiosis

113
Q

explain a gametophyte

A

produces gametes (n)
develops from spores after meiosis
meiosis –> spore –> mitosis –> multicellular gametophyte –> mitosis –> gametes –> fertilization

114
Q

nonvascular plants have a dominant ________ (sporophyte or gametophyte)?

A

dominant gametophyte - plants are mostly green and for a long time

115
Q

what are characteristics of nonvascular plants? (4)
give examples of them

A

gametophyte green for a long time
sporophyte only briefly green & dependent of gametophyte for nutrition
small & live in moist environments
gametophyte has simple body: few cell types, few cells thick, lacks seeds, lacks leaves/stems/roots, lacks vascular tissue
examples: mosses, liverworts, hornworts

116
Q

give characteristics of vascular plants (4)

A

water-conducting cell in the xylem (tracheids) conduct water over long distances, which allows great size & structural support
dominant sporophyte
most have true roots
some reproduce using seeds

117
Q

give characteristics of FIRST vascular plants

A

stem only
no leaves, no roots (held up by rhizoids - underground stem)
stem branches at tip for equal dichotomous branching
reproduce by producing spores in sporangia

118
Q

how did the first vascular plants grow with no leaves?

A

stems photosynthetic

119
Q

leaves have evolved at least twice - what are the 2 origins?

A

1) microphylls - small leaves, flattened, sterile sporangia
2) megaphylls - fusions of side branches, flat plates of photosynthetic tissue developed between branches

120
Q

give characteristics of lycophytes (6)

A

“club mosses” but not a moss
microphylls
dichotomous branching
spores produced in sporangia in strobilus (no seeds)
uncommon now
primary parent material for coal

121
Q

give examples and characteristics of ferns

A

don’t produce seeds
ex. horsetail: unbranched stem, small leaves in whorls
ex. whisk ferns: no leaves, no roots, dichotomous branching, evolved from ancestor with leaves and roots
ex. ferns: most diverse, have true leaves & roots, both gametophyte and sporophyte are green & photosynthetic

122
Q

why are seeds useful for reproduction? (2)

A

they protect and nourish embryo (stored nutrients b/c no photosynthesis)
allow survival through unfavorable conditions

123
Q

what types of plants are the most successful?

A

seed plants - >80% biomass

124
Q

are seed plants vascular or nonvascular

A

vascular (trees come from seeds)

125
Q

what are the two types of seed plants?

A

gymnosperms and angiosperms

126
Q

what is the main characteristic of gymnosperms
give examples of them

A

seeds contained in cones, not flowers
ex. cycads, gnetales, ginkgo, conifers

127
Q

give characteristics of angiosperms (5)

A

seeds produced inside an ovary (covered part of a flower)
most diverse, successful, and highly evolved
economically important for food, fiber, building materials, and drugs
animal pollinators like attractive flowers
flowers are most useful for identification

128
Q

give characteristics of monocots (angiosperms) (5)

A

one cotyledon
parallel veins in leaves
vascular bundles complexly arranged
fibrous root system
floral parts usually in multiples of 3

129
Q

give characteristics of eudicots (5)

A

two cotyledons
veins in leaves usually netlike
vascular bundles arranged in a ring
taproot usually present
floral parts usually in multiples of 4 or 5

diversity of form and function (6 decks)

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