Module 3 Flashcards
1
Q
What is metabolism (+ 2 types)?
A
- term that describes the total balance of energy requirements of the body.
- It is a process by which macromolecules from our food is converted into energy. Our bodies need this energy to do everything from moving to thinking to growing
- It describes how our bodies take in, store, break and create macromolecules -> if one or more of these processes are disturbed, it can lead to a metabolic disorder.
Anabolic: create new, more complex macromolecules out of smaller units or molecules. This process requires energy. Those anabolic pathways are used by cells in our bodies to grow or repair damage. - Catabolic: break down macromolecules inro smaller units or molecules, and generate energy in the process
2
Q
What do anabolic steroids do?
A
can be used to quickly gain muscle
3
Q
Carbohydrates?
A
- Sugar, glycogen, fiber and starches
- Simple (bad) or complex (healthy)
- Glycogen is broken down into glucose or blood sugar.
- Glucose is the sugar in the body, can’t enter the cell by itself, needs a transporter -> 1st reservoir of energy used
Glucose is stored in the body as glycogen until needed
4
Q
Lipids?
A
- Fats (triglycerides, oils, fats, cholesterol)
- Triglycerides: main fats in the body, enters through food consumption and made in the liver
- Depends on protein transporters to move around
- Deposits of fat in the body are stored in adipocytes (fat cells), which are referred to as adipose tissue
2nd reservoir of energy used
5
Q
Proteins?
A
- chains amino acids, made from dna instructions
Only break down in periods of starvation bc they serve for other important functions
6
Q
Nucleic acid?
A
- RNA and DNA
- Not used for energy production
Make up ATP and GTP (are used as energy currency for chemical reactions)
- Not used for energy production
7
Q
What are the factors that can influence metabolism?
A
- Food intake
- Food expenditure (physical activity)
- Fat stores
- CNS (Basal Metabolic: number of calories required to keep your body functionning at rest (varies))
8
Q
True or false: metabolism is not a regulated process?
A
False. Metabolism is a highly regulated process. As your body consumes and expands energy, signals are exchanged between tissues by way of hormones.
9
Q
Hormones?
A
- Influence sensations
- Signal whether macromolecules are stored or comsumed
- Maintain a balance between anabolic and catabolic pathways
10
Q
What is the equilibrium of the metabolism?
A
equal amounts of anabolic and catabolic processes (optimal state)
11
Q
Anabolism?
A
- Lack of exercise and continued food intake = favour the storage of sugar and fats vis anabolic processes
- Prolonged time = weight gain (bc fat is stored in adipose tissue and basal metabolism rates drop)
12
Q
Catabolism?
A
- Exercise and fasting
- Hormones signal for stored sugars and fats to be broken down and enter the circulation, where they are absorbed by the cell in need of energy
- Prolonged time = weight loss (+ low blood sugar concentration drops)
13
Q
Insulin?
A
- Produced by B(beta)-cells in the pancreas (organ that helps digestion, secrets hormones and regulates blood sugar)
Maintain healthy levels of glucose in the blood
14
Q
Insulin pathway:
A
Insulin binding:
- It binds to insulin receptor on the extracellular surface of cells -> activation of the receptor and signals which results in increases in ANABOLIC activity.
Glucose transport:
- Insulin stimulates the movement of glucose transporters from endosomes inside the cell to plasma membrane -> allows glucose to enter the cell and be used for energy
No insulin:
- No insulin = no glucose transporters in the plasma membrane -> glucose cannot enter the cell -> glucose cannot be metabolized
15
Q
True or false: The brain is highly depend on glucose to keep you conscious
A
true
16
Q
Why do lipids can’t circulate in the blood and what is the solution to this problem?
A
they are not water-soluble and cannot move through the blood without assistance. However, many lipids are able to enter cells without transporters.
17
Q
Plasma lipoproteins?
A
- Cholesterol and triglycerides are transported in the bloodstream with the aid of plasma lipoproteins -> form spherical complexes around lipids to transport them in the bloodstream (complex=cholesterol)
- The “encasing” of lipid molecules within the lipoproteins makes the lipid water-soluble and transportable through the blood.
They also play a role in lipid absorption by ensuring that right molecules get to where the body needs them and to a lesser extent a role in lipid breakdown or synthesis as requires once they arrive.
- The “encasing” of lipid molecules within the lipoproteins makes the lipid water-soluble and transportable through the blood.
18
Q
Types of cholesterol?
A
LDL (bad):
- Transport cholesterol to tissues (can build up n your arteries-> causing them to narrow -> heart disease or stroke)
HDL (good):
- Transport extra cholesterol back to the liver
Triglycerides:
- Fats our bodies store (high levels = CVD)
19
Q
What is the worse combination of cholesterol?
A
high LDL, low HDL and high triglycerides
20
Q
Why do our bodies store extra energy and what is the consequence of that?
A
Our bodies were designed to reverse plenty of energy for the flight or fight response and those genes responsible for storing extra energy are still present.
Now, we continue to take in more energy than we need -> high disease risk
21
Q
True or false: Changes in westernized lifestyles, behaviours, and food sources have altered the normal metabolic balance in these pathways and have led to increased obesity.
A
True
22
Q
Obesity?
A
- Metabolic disease characterized by accumulation of excess body fat
- increase in obesity comes an increase in developing related diseases, including type 2 diabetes, cardiovascular disease, hypertension, cancer, and arthritis.
23
Q
What are the two types of the distribution of fat storage?
A
Subcutaneous fat and Visceral fat
24
Q
Subcutaneous fat?
A
(situated under the skin): 80-90% of the total fat deposits in the abdomen, hips, thighs (high in women) -> pear shape body (lower risk of CVD), very efficient for storing triglyceride fat store that it tend to mobilize fats slower.
25
Visceral fat?
(wrap around organs and stores within the abdominal cavity): 10-20% of total fats. Associated with the digestive tract, have high rates of fat tumours and are more responsive to hormones. (high in males= high risk of disease = excess hormone signalling)-> apple shaped body, upper body obesity, high blood pressure, insulin resistance, diabetes and heart disease. This is why waist circumference is an important risk factor to monitor.
26
Metabolic Syndrome (MetS)
collection of risk factors
- Health disorder that greatly increases the risk of many chronic illnesses
- Diagnosed when a patient has 3 of the 5:
- Visceral obesity
- Low HDL
- High triglycerides
- High blood sugar
- Hypertension (high blood pressure)
27
What is the body mass index?
Body mass index is a measure of body fat, and is calculated based on the equation = (weight in kilograms) / (height in metres squared)
28
What is diabetes and when does it occur?
- High levels of glucose in the blood (high blood sugar)
- Overtime it can lead to severe damage to the eyes, heart, nerves, blood vessels and kidneys
It occurs when:
- Your body doesn't produce enough insulin
Your cells do not respond to circulating insulin
29
What the the normal glucose uptake pathway?
- Insulin regulates the amount of glucose in the bloodstream at any given moment
It is released by the pancreas in response to high blood glucose -> signalling the cells in the body to take up glucose from the bloodstream for storage or energy -> insulin lowers blood glucose levels to a normal range
30
Diabetes in Indigenous people?
- Have a high risk for type 2
- Bc of colonial policies, lack of access to healthy food
- Act of 1876 changed their active lifestyle to a sedentary one (less reliance on nutritious foods)
As a result of the colonialism of Indigenous Peoples in Canada, not only did many First Nations, Métis, and Inuit communities lose a sense of cultural identity, their families, and land, but they also lost all their spiritual and medicinal healers and healing practices
31
What cells secrete insulin?
B-cells in the pancreas
32
True or false: only type 2 diabetes is caused by an inability to transport glucose into cells
False: Both types of diabetes are caused by an inability to transport glucose into cells, but each type has a unique pathogenesis
33
Type 1:
- Body stops producing insulin, due to an autoimmune disorder (immune system attacking the body), killing B-cells
- -> inability to uptake glucose form the bloodstream
Insulin injections are needed
34
Type 2:
- Combination of insulin resistance and non-functional B-cells (failure to respond to insulin -> no uptake)
- NO insulin injections (only needed if B-cells completely fail, in the late stages)
The symptoms in early type 2 are more mild than type 1 bc there is still insulin being secreted, allowing for some of the normal functions of insulin to occur
35
Insulin resistance?
- Large genetic factors
- Most common driver of insulin resistance = obesity (not every individual who is obese and is insulin-resistant will develop type 2 diabetes)
- Healthy: B-cells release insulin in response to an evelation of blood sugar
- Excessive glucose intake: food intake> required intake. -> high glucose levels, pancreas releases larger amounts of insulin into the bloodstream , so more cells can take up the extra glucose
- Continued glucose intake: insulin receptors may begin to undergo changes -> less insulin binding -> less glucose in the cell (this the start of insulin resistance)
- Insulin resistance: leads to tissues like the liver, fat cells and muscle being less responsive to normal levels of insulin (high glucose levels or hyperglycemia) in part due to decreased glucose uptake by muscle and fat tissue
- B-cell damage: to compensate for insulin resistance, the pancreas will increase insulin production -> B-cell become damaged or non functional. -> not enough insulin production -> hyperglycemia (late stage type 2)
36
True or false: Diabetes develops gradually, without causing too many obvious symptoms
True
37
True or false: Although obesity is the leading risk factor for developing type 2 diabetes, it also has a large genetic component
True
38
Indicators of diabetes?
- High fasting blood glucose
High hemoglobin A1C
39
Common symptoms?
- Polyuria: frequent urination
- Polydipsia: excessive thirst
Polyphagia: excessive hunger
40
What is the traditional method of glucose monitoring and what are the recent inventions?
Traditional blood glucose monitoring devices: fingerstick -> require blood to be drawn: they are very accurate but they can be unpleasant and inconvenient
Recently, an increasing number of patch-based continuous glucose monitors (C G Ms) are being approved for use. These devices can read glucose levels in real time, and many are capable of sending out alerts when glucose levels are too high or too low. Even more recently, some devices have conveniently linked smartphone apps to their sensors!
41
Metformin (Glucophage)
- 1ST line of medication for type 2 (especially is the patient is overweight)
- Activate signalling pathways that play roles in both sugar and fat metabolism
- Directly inhibits glucose synthesis in the liver
Has been proven to:
- Increase insulin sensitivity
- Decrease absorption of glucose
- Promote catabolism of glucose in cells
- Overall, lower blood glucose levels
42
Complications if type two is left untreated?
- Eyes: vision loss due to retinal damage
- Heart: development of cardiovascular disease and heart disease (high risk of heart attack and strokes)
- Pancreas: failure of pancreas to create insulin
- Kidneys: high glucose level -> struggles to filter it and may lead to damage to both kidneys blood vessels and normal functioning
Feet: development of diabetic peripheral neuropathy (damage nerves) -> foot problems. Severe damage may lead to amputation
43
Risk factors of diabetes?
- Age: type 1 -> children, type 2 -> 45+
- Lifestyle: not type 1, TYPE 2 (poor physical activity and diet)
Family history: type 1 or 2
44
Lack of health-promoting conditions?
- The availability of health services
- Adequate housing: With such poor housing security, many Indigenous Peoples are left with the decision to choose between paying for housing, or nutritious food
- Safe working conditions: Indigenous Canadians are also more likely to work seasonal and/or part-time jobs, making them more vulnerable to economic downturns and often lacking medical benefits. they have less financial security and a diminished ability to eat healthy and nutritious foods, or buy proper medications.
Nutritious foods: Indigenous Peoples are four times more likely to experience hunger than non-Indigenous Canadians, making it difficult to stay healthy.
45
What is a stroke?
occurs when blood vessels in the brain are blocked or ruptures, resulting in lack of o2 and nutrients in the brain -> there are extremely time sensitive: A few minutes can mean the difference between a full recovery and a permanent disability, or in some cases, death depending on how quickly they receive medical attention
46
What is acute ischemic stroke?
caused by a clot blocking flow to a specific part of the brain, known as ischemic
47
What is atherosclerosis?
- Thickening of arteries (they deliver o2) -> Combination of inflammation and plaque (fatty deposits) build up
- Cause heart attacks and strokes
- Can't obtain incidence or prevalence bc the development starts early in most people
- Occurs at sites where the blood vessels are repeatedly damaged -> injury to the endothelial cells (form the endothelium, layer that acts as a barrier and regulator between vessels and tissue) that line the vessels
Involves cholesterol, blood, immune cells and thin infiltration into blood vessels
48
The development process of atherosclerosis?
- Endothelial cell Injury: occurs when the force of the blood flow creates friction (can be caued by smoking, hypertension or high blood pressure, viruses and other factors) normally the damage is repaired quickly, however if there is to much LDL in the circulation -> the LDL gets absorbed into the vessel wall (When an injury occurs in the endothelial cells -> blood flow creates friction -> usally repaired quickly but of there is too much LDL -> LDL gets absorbed into the vessel -> inflammation)
- Infiltration: LDL accumulates and leads to more inflammation that recruits platelets which normally help form blood claws and immune cells -> those cells also enter or infiltrate the blood vessel wall.
- Limit build up: the immune system tries to move the LDL build up rather than removing the problem -> those LDL filled immune cells undergo apoptosis -> inflammation
1st sign: lipid debris, inflammation + bursting immune cells
-> lesion -> plaque => if it ruptures: clot can travel through the bloodstream
Complete plaque: Inflammation, infiltration, and lipid buildup continue to snowball until a full atherosclerotic lesion forms. . These lesions many narrow or block the blood vessel or lead to weakening of the blood vessel wall, thereby causing disruption of wall itself and leading. Finally, if the plaque ruptures a dislodged piece of the clot can travel through the bloodstream and create a blockage elsewhere, which is known as an embolism
49
What is the lumen?
space where the blood flows
50
What is the anatomy of a blood vessel?
1st layer in the vessel surrounding the blood -> made of endothelial cells
Outer layers -> layers of smooth muscle cells sandwiched between connective tissue that make up the blood vessel wall.
51
True or false: the formation of atherosclerosis is very quick?
False: The formation of atherosclerosis can take years, but a burst plaque can cause life-threatening damage within minutes
52
What are the factors of atheroclerosis?
Same as the metabolic risk factors
53
What is an electrocardiogram?
a test to measure the electrical activity of the heart in order to detect any heart problems
54
True or False: Atherosclerotic plaque tends to build up in specific regions of the circulatory system. This means doctors know where to look for signs of advanced disease.
True
55
What are the common sites of atherosclerosis?
carotid arteries coronary arteries so arteries of the heart, as well as illio-femoral arteries in your legs
56
What are the surgical interventions for treating atherosclerosis?
Bypass: If atherosclerosis blocks blood flow through the artery that directly supplies blood, oxygen, and nutrients to the heart, surgeons may perform a bypass: veins from elsewhere in the body are harvested and grafted to ‘skip over’ the blockage.
Angioplasty: This minimally invasive procedure involves sliding a balloon catheter through a large artery on the arm or leg, all the way up to the plaque, then inflating the small balloon and expanding the vessel to improve blood flow.
Stenting: Surgeons may also use angioplasty to leave a metal or plastic tube called a stent, against the former atherosclerotic site, to keep the vessel open, prevent plaque formation, and encourage vessel healing. Whenever possible, surgeons will pick the least invasive intervention, but the location or severity of disease may limit their options
57
What does grafted mean?
Surgical process of transplanting tissue or organs to a different location.
58
What is a balloon catheter?
A thin tube with a balloon at its tip that is used to help open up arteries
