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biology > Module 2.1.2 Biological Molecules Brewer > Flashcards

Module 2.1.2 Biological Molecules Brewer Flashcards

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1
Q

What is a monomer?

A

A small molecule that is one of the units bonded to form a polymer

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2
Q

What is a polymer?

A

A large molecule made up of many repeating molecules covalently bonded together

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3
Q

What is a polar molecule?

A

A molecule with regions of negative charge and positive charge

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4
Q

What is hydrogen bonding ?

A

Relatively weak interaction which break and reform between the constantly moving water molecules

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5
Q

Details of water being a liquid

A

-Hydrogen bonds continually break and reform
-hydrogen bonds make it difficult for molecules to escape and become a gas so more energy is required to do so
- low viscosity so can flow easily

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6
Q

Why does ice float ?

A

1) water becomes more dense as it cools until 4C-0C
2)At this temp the polar nature causes the molecules to align themselves
3) due to less kinetic energy hydrogen bonds form up and expand forming a lattice structure with empty space making ice low density.

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7
Q

What is the arrangement of ice ?

A

Tetrahedral arrangement

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8
Q

Why is water a good solvent?

A

-polar so attracts to another polar substance
- the water molecules rearrange around the positive ion so that the partially negative region on the oxygen atom is fully surrounding the ion as opposites attract then making the ion saturated and fully dissolved.
-opposite for - ions . partially + regions in hydrogen

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9
Q

What is cohesion?

A

Hydrogen bonds between the molecules pull them towards eachother so they stick together

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10
Q

What is surface tension ?

A

Between the air and the water the cohesion between the molecules provide surface tension as the hydrogen bonds pull the molecules towards the surface

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11
Q

Why does water have a ^ SHC

A

-hydrogen bonds absorb alot of energy
- water doesn’t experience rapid temperature change

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12
Q

Why does water have high specific latent heat if vaporisation?

A

-a lot of energy is needed to break hydrogen bonds
- when water evaporates latent heat of vaporisation helps the molecules to break away and become gas
- a lot of energy needed = high SLHOV

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13
Q

Water as a reactant

A

-photosynthesis
- hydrolysis
-doesn’t draw on its polarity

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14
Q

What are lipids made of ?

A

-Carbon
-hydrogen
-oxygen

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15
Q

What are carbohydrates made of?

A

-carbon
-hydrogen
-oxygen

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16
Q

What are proteins made of ?

A

-carbon
-hydrogen
-oxygen
-nitrogen
-sulphur

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17
Q

What are nucleic acids made of?

A

-carbon
-hydrogen
-oxygen
-nitrogen
-phosphorus

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18
Q

Mass number

A

The MASSive number

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19
Q

How many bonds can carbon form ?

A

4

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20
Q

How many bonds can nitrogen form ?

A

3

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21
Q

How many bonds can oxygen form ?

A

2

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22
Q

How many bonds can hydrogen form ?

A

1

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23
Q

What is calcium required for (cation)?

A

-nerve impulses
-muscle contractions

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24
Q

What is sodium required for (cation)?

A

-nerve impulses
-kidney function

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25
Q

What is potassium required for? (cation)

A

-nerve impulses
-stomata

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26
Q

How many amino acids are need to create a protein?

A

20

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27
Q

What is a condensation reaction?
MAKING polymers

A

A chemical reaction where two molecules are joined together through covalent bonding forming a larger molecule and a molecule of water

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28
Q

What is hydrolysis?
BREAKING polymers

A

A chemical reaction where the covalent bond is broken when you add a water molecule, separating the two molecules

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29
Q

Where do hydrolysis reaction occur?

A

-maltose
-sucrose
-lacyose

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30
Q

What is covalent bonding?

A

-between two non metals
-share electrons

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31
Q

What is ionic bonding ?

A

-atoms are gained or lost
-metal and non metal

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32
Q

Properties of a covalent bond

A

1) strong
2) don’t break and reform easily
3) useful to make polymers
4) attraction WITHIN the molecule

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33
Q

Properties of hydrogen bond

A

1) relatively weak
2) break and reform easily
3) always invoked hydrogen
4) attraction BETWEEN molecules

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34
Q

What are the 2 carb groups?

A

Sugars
Starch

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35
Q

Describe sugars

A

-one or two units
1 unit -> monosaccharide
2 unit -> disaccharide

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36
Q

Describe starch

A

-long , large storage
-many units
-polysaccharide

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37
Q

General formula of monosaccharides

A

(CH2O)n

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38
Q

What are carbs for?

A

-act as an energy source and support
-function is related to structure
-contain carbon, oxygen, hydrogen

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39
Q

General formula of carbohydrates?

A

Cx(H2O)y

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40
Q

What’s an isomer ?

A

Molecules that have the same molecular formulas, but different arrangement of atoms

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41
Q

How is glucose related to its function of energy ?

A

-it makes it soluble -> can easily be transported
-it’s chemical bonds contain a lot of energy

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42
Q

What type of saccharide is glucose m?

A

Hexose monosaccharide

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43
Q

What do the hydrogen bonds between the hydroxyl groups and water molecules allow glucose to be ?

A

Insoluble I’m non polar solvents

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44
Q

How are disaccharides formed ?

A

-condensation reaction

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45
Q

What’s the bond formed between 2 monosaccharides to form a disaccharide?

A

-glycosidic bond

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46
Q

What is a glycosidic bond ?

A

A covalent bond formed when 2 carbohydrates are joined by a condensation reactionn

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47
Q

How is maltose formed?

A
  • 2 alpha glucose molecules are joined by an alpha 1-4 glycosidic bond
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48
Q

How is sucrose formed ?
Isomer of glucose

A

Glucose and fructose join by an alpha 1-4 glycosidic bond
-alpha and beta

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49
Q

What are polysaccharides made of one kind of monomer called ?

A

Homopolysaccharides

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50
Q

What are polysaccharides made of more than one type of monomer called?

A

Heteropolysaccharides

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51
Q

What is starch ?

A

-a polymer of alpha glucose molecules with glycosidic bonds linking the molecules together

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52
Q

What is the formation of starch like?

A

-coiled up into a spring
-the shape of the monomer and angle the glycosidic bonds joking forms a 1-4 glycosidic bond

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53
Q

What are the 2 molecules of starch?

A

-Amylose
-amylopectin

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54
Q

Key features of amylose

A

-un branched chain of alpha glucose
-angles of glycosidic bonds give it a coiled structure ->compact hood for storage

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55
Q

Key features of amylopectin

A

-long, branched chasing of alpha glucose-> allows enzymes to break down the molecule to get at the glycosidic bonds so glucose can be released quickly
-better

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56
Q

What are plastids in starch ?

A

The way starch is stored -> as intracellular starch grains in organelles (plastids)
-membrane bound
-plant cells

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57
Q

Is starch soluble ?

A

No
-insoluble ->non polar

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58
Q

Why is starch insoluble?

A

-so it doesn’t cause water to enter cells by osmosis causing them to swell

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59
Q

What is glycogen ?

A

-main energy store in animals
-animals store excess glucose as glycogen

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60
Q

Structure of glycogen

A

-lots of side branches -> stored glucose can be released quickly
-compact -> storage
-alpha 1-6 glycosidic bonds

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61
Q

Glycogen vs starch

A

-Glycogen is less dense and more soluble than starch
-glycogen is broken down more rapidly -> shows animals have a higher metabolic requirements than plant

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62
Q

Structure of cellulose

A

-beta glucose joined by glycosidic bonds
-unbranched chains (straight cellulose chains)
-molecules flip in an alternating pattern due to the position of the -OH and -H group at C1

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63
Q

How are cellulose chains linked together?

A

-by hydrogen bonds
-form strong fibres (microfibrils) due to high number of -OH on the outside chains

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64
Q

How are macrofibres formed (cellulose)

A

Bundles of microfibrils are cross linked by hydrogen bonds

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65
Q

Why is cellulose used in cell walls?

A

-strong fibres provide structural support that’s stable

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66
Q

What are lipids?

A

-Macromolecules
-contain: carbon, hydrogen and oxygen

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67
Q

Are lipids soluble ?

A

No
-insoluble in water as they are not polar and don’t attract water molecules (hydrophobic )
-DO dissolve in alcohol

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68
Q

What are the three types of lipids ?

A

1) triglycerides
2)phospholipids
3)cholesterol

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69
Q

What’s a macromolecule?

A

-very large , organic molecule

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70
Q

What is a fatty acid ?

A

-a molecule with a hydrocarbon chain and a carboxylic acid

71
Q

What is glycerol?

A

-a 3 carbon alcohol molecule
-joins to fatty acid to form a triglyceride

72
Q

What is an ester bond ?

A

Bond formed when an organic acid joins an alcohol by a CONDENSATION reaction
In LIPIDS

73
Q

What does R stand for in structures ?

A

-hydrocarbon tail

74
Q

How long is a hydrocarbon tail?

A

2-20 carbons

75
Q

What does an unsaturated tail have that a saturated one doesn’t ?

A

A carbon DOUBLE bond

Saturated only has one SINGLE bond

76
Q

Where can you find phospholipids ?

A

-In all biological membranes

77
Q

What do phospholipids contain that triglyceride’s don’t ?

A

A phosphate group

78
Q

How many fatty acids do phospholipids have ?

A

2
-1 SATURATED and 1 UNSATURATED

79
Q

How long are phospholipids fatty acids hydrocarbon chains ?

A

16-18 carbons
EVEN number

80
Q

Where are phosphate ions found?

A

-in cytoplasm
-negatively charged (soluble in water)

81
Q

Why is the phosphate molecule hydroPHILIC?

A

-ATTRACTS water

82
Q

Why are the hydrocarbons in phospholipids hydroPHOBIC?

A

-non polar
-REPEL water

83
Q

What are the properties of proteins?

A

-structural
-catalytic
-carriers and pores

84
Q

How are proteins structural?

A

They’re the main component body tissue in animals such as muscle,skin ligament and hair

85
Q

How are proteins catalytic?

A

They make enzymes, antibodies and some hormones due to the specificity of their shape mr

86
Q

How are proteins carriers and pores ?

A

Membranes have protein constituents that act as carriers and pores for active transport across the membrane and facilitated diffusion

87
Q

What are proteins

A

Long chains of amino acids

88
Q

What are amino acids ?

A

Monomers of all proteins and all have the same basic structure

89
Q

What are the elements in amino acids ?

A

-carbon
-hydrogen
-oxygen
-nitrogen
-some sulfur

90
Q

How many amino acids are there and how many are in proteins?

A

-500+ typed
-only 20 are proteinogenic

91
Q

How many of the 20 amino acids are non-essential?

A

5
Our bodies can be made from other amino acids

92
Q

How many of the 20 amino acids are essential?

A

9
Only obtained by food

93
Q

How many of the 20 amino acids are conditionally essential?

A

6
Only needed in infants and growing children

94
Q

Structure of an amino acid

A

-an amino group -NH3
-a carboxyl group -COOH
-a central carbon atom that carried a hydrogen atom on one side and an R group on the other

95
Q

What is an R group?

A

-A side chain that acts as a functional group
-helps determine the internal bonds and the shape of the polypeptide and hence it’s final function
-called residual groupb

96
Q

Examples of amino acids

A

Glycines
Arginines

End in ines except those with acidic R groups

97
Q

How can R grounds vary?

A

In
-size
-by charge
-by polarity
-some are hydrophobic
-some are hydrophilic

98
Q

How are amino acids linked together ?

A

-By peptide bonds
-To from dipeptides or polypeptides

99
Q

What is the shape of protein determined by ?

A

-the amino acids and their arrangements in the chain

100
Q

What are the 4 levels of protein structure ?

A

1) primary
2) secondary
3) tertiary
4)quaternary

101
Q

What is the primary structure of proteins?

A

-the sequence
-type
-number of amino acids in the polypeptide chain

102
Q

Bonds involved in primary structure?

A

-peptide bonds between the carboxyl and amine groups

103
Q

What is the primary structure of a protein directed by?

A

-information carried within DNA
- change in a single amino acid alters it’s function

104
Q

What is the secondary structure ?

A

-the twisting chain of amino acids

105
Q

Bonds involved in the secondary structure?

A

Hydrogen bonds between the NH group of amino acid and CO group of another down the chain

106
Q

What are the 2 main forms of secondary folding ?

A

1) alpha helix
2)beta pleated sheets

107
Q

How is the alpha helix of the secondary structure held together ?

A

-by the hydrogen bonds between the NH group of one amino acidand the CO group of another four places ahead in its chainn

108
Q

How is the secondary beta pleated structure held together ?

A

By hydrogen bonds between the NH group of one amino acid and the CO group of another further down the strand hold the sheet together

109
Q

What is the tertiary structure ?

A

-when the coils and pleats start to fold along with areas of straight chains of amino acids
-folding the protein into its 3D shape

110
Q

Bonds involved in tertiary structure

A

-ionic bonds
-disulfide bonds
-hydrophobic and hydrophilic interactions
-hydrogen bonds

111
Q

What is the quaternary structure ?

A

Results from the association of two or more individuals proteins called subunits

112
Q

Bonds invoked in quaternary structure

A

-ionic bonds
-disulfide bonds
-hydrophobic and hydrophilic interactions
-hydrogen bonds

113
Q

Definition of ionic bonds

A

-stronger than hydrogen bonds
-forms between oppositely charged R groups

114
Q

Define disulfide bonds

A

-strongest bonds
-covalent bonds
-only form between R groups that contain sulfur atoms

115
Q

Define hydrogen bonds

A

-Weakest bonds formed

116
Q

Define Hydrophilic and hydrophobic interactions

A

Weak interactions between polar and non polar R groups

117
Q

Where are proteins assembled?

A

-in the cytoplasm (aqueous environment)
-affects the way the protein folds and depends on the polarity of the R groups

118
Q

Where are hydrophilic and hydrophobic found in the protein ?

A

-hydrophilic groups are found outside the proteins
-hydrophobic groups would be shielded on the inside of the molecule away from the water in the cytoplasm

119
Q

How are peptides broken down

A

-heating the protein to a high temperature breaks it ionic bonds, hydrophobic/Phillic interactions and hydrogen bonds cause the 3D protein shape to change
-the protein will unfold, become denatured and stop working

120
Q

What can cause proteins to denature ?

A

-change in:
1) temperature
2) Ph
3) salt concentration

121
Q

What happens to proteins when their denatured?

A

-fibrous proteins lose their structural strength
-globular proteins become insoluble and inactive

122
Q

Function of starch?

A

Store of glucose

123
Q

Location of starch ?

A

Plants

124
Q

Structure of starch?

A

2->
Amylose : unbranched helix
Amylopectin: branched molecule

125
Q

How does structure of starch lead to its function ?

A

-helix can compact to fit a lot of glucose in small space
-branches increases surface area for rapid hydrolysis back to glucose
-insoluble so doesn’t effect water potential

126
Q

Monomers is cellulose?

A

Beta glucose
1-4 glycosidic bonds

127
Q

Function of cellulose?

A

Structural strength in cell wall

128
Q

Location of cellulose?

A

Plants-> cell wall

129
Q

Structure of cellulose ?

A

-long straight polymer chains
-held parallel by many hydrogen bonds to form fibrils
-microfibrils combine to form cellulose fibre

130
Q

How does cellulose structure helps its function ?

A

-many hydrogen bonds provide collective strength
-insoluble so won’t affect water potential

131
Q

Monomers involved in glycogen?

A

Alpha glucose
1-4 and 1-6 glycosidic bonds

132
Q

Function of glycogen?

A

Store of glucose

133
Q

Location of glycogen?

A

Animals -> muscle and liver cells

134
Q

Structure of glycogen?

A

-highly branched

135
Q

How structure of glycogen helps function?

A

Highly branched increases surface area for rapid hydrolysis back to glucose
-insoluble so doesn’t affect water potential

136
Q

What are lipids made of ?

A

Fatty acids and glycerol

137
Q

How are triglycerides formed ?

A

Via condensation reaction between one molecule of glycerol and 3 molecules of fatty acid

138
Q

Why can triglycerides transfer energy well ?

A

-large ratio of energy-storing Carbon to hydrogen bonds compared to number of carbon atoms
-a lot of energy when broken doen

139
Q

How are triglycerides good metabolic water sources?

A

-high hydrogen to oxygen atom ratio
-can release water is they’re oxidised

140
Q

Why are triglycerides insoluble?

A

-hydrophobic
-don’t affect water potential

141
Q

What are phospholipids made of ?

A

-glycerol
-2 fatty acids
-a phosphate
-2 ester bonds -> condensation reaction between fatty acid and phosphate

142
Q

Property of the head and tail of a phospholipid?

A

Head ->Hydrophilic
Tail -> Hydrophobic

143
Q

How is the phospholipid bilayer formed?

A

Hydrophilic heads spin facing the water and hydroponic tails spin inwards facing each other making the membrane structure .

144
Q

What is the structure of cholesterol?

A

-4 carbon rings and a hydroxyl group
-hydrophobic and hydrophilic regions

145
Q

Where is Cholesterol found ?

A

Embedded within cell membranes to impact fluidity

146
Q

How does cholesterol impact fluidity?

A

-REDUCE -> HIGH temp
-INCREASE-> LOW temp

147
Q

What shape are globular proteins?

A

-round and compact

148
Q

Are globular proteins stable or unstable?

A

Unstable

149
Q

Why are globular proteins soluble?

A

-hydrophilic R group on amino acids is pushed to outside of molecule in tertiary structure

150
Q

Why is it good fibulas proteins are soluble?

A

Easily transported in fluids eg haemoglobin in blood

151
Q

What’s the shape of fibrous proteins?

A

Tough and rope shaped

152
Q

Are fibrous proteins soluble or insoluble?
Stable or unstable

A

-insoluble
-stable

153
Q

Examples of fibrous proteins ?

A

Collagen-> connective tissue
Keratin->hair
Elastin-> elastic connective tissue

154
Q

What is an inorganic ion?

A

One that doesn’t contain carbon s

155
Q

Role of calcium (cation) Ca2+

A

-Transmission of nerve impulses
-release of insulin in pancreas

156
Q

Role of sodium (cation) Na+

A

-generates nerve impulses
-regulates body fluid balance

157
Q

Role of potassium (cation) K+

A

-generates nerve impulses
-activated essential enzymes in photosynthesis

158
Q

Role of hydrogen (cation) H+

A

-affects ph of substances
-important in respiration in inner membrane of mitochondria

159
Q

Role of ammonium (cation) NH4+

A

-absorbed from soil by plants to source nitrogen

160
Q

Role of nitrate (anion) NO3-

A

-absorbed from soil by plants to source nitrogen

161
Q

Role of hydro carbonate (anions) HCO3-

A

-maintain ph of blood

162
Q

Role of chloride (anion) Cl-

A

-maintain ph of blood during gas exchange
-cofactor of enzyme amylase

163
Q

Role of phosphate (anion) PO43-

A

-photosynthesis and respiration

164
Q

Role of hydroxide (anion) OH-

A

-Affects ph of substances

165
Q

Test for starch

A

-add iodine
-present : Blue/ black

166
Q

Test for reducing sugar

A

-Benedict’s and HEAT
-if present: green/yellow and orange/ brick red

167
Q

Test for non reducing sugars

A

-following negative Benedict’s
-add acid and boil
-cool and add alkali to neutralise
- add Benedict’s and heat
- present: yellow/ green or orange/ brick red

168
Q

Test for protein

A

-biuret
-present: purple

169
Q

Test for lipid

A

-dissolve sample in ethanol
-add distilled water
-present: white emulsion

170
Q

What is a biosensor?

A

-device that uses a biological molecule to detect a chemical.

171
Q

Rf value

A

Distance moved by solute
————————————
Distance moved by solvent

172
Q

What is mobile stage ?

A

Liquid solvent such as ethanol or water

173
Q

What is the stationary phase ?

A

The chromatography paper

biology (8 decks)

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