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Biology: Paper 1: Biological Processes > Module 2 - Nucleotides > Flashcards

Module 2 - Nucleotides Flashcards

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1
Q

What is DNA?

A
  • Deoxyribose nucleic acid
    -double stranded polymer
  • contains the genetic code used by the cell to make proteins
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2
Q

What is RNA?

A
  • Ribonucleic acid
    -single stranded polymer of nucleotide
  • used to make proteins
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3
Q

What are the 3 types different types of RNA?

A
  • messenger
  • transfer
  • Ribosomal
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4
Q

what is the structure of RNA nucleotide?

A
  • Phosphate group
  • nitrogenous bases (A,C,G,U)
  • Ribose sugar
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5
Q

what is the structure of DNA nucleotide?

A
  • Phosphate group
  • nitrogenous bases (A,C,G,T)
  • deoxyribose sugar
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6
Q

What are purines?

A

large bases

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7
Q

What are the two types of purines?

A
  • Adenine
  • Guanine
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8
Q

What are pyrimidines?

A

smaller bases

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9
Q

what are the 3 types of pyrimidines?

A
  • cytosine
  • thymine
  • uracil
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10
Q

How many rings are pyrimidines?

A

They are single rings

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11
Q

How many rings are purines?

A

They are double rings

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12
Q

Do purines and pyrimidines contain nitrogen in both?

A

yes

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13
Q

What are polynucleotides?

A

Nucleotides joined by condensation reactions to form polymers

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14
Q

What is a phosphodiester bond?

A

Bonds that form between the phosphate groups of one nucleotides and the sugar of another.

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15
Q

What is the 3’ and the 5’?

A

It is the number of carbon atoms in the sugar molecules

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16
Q

What is DNA composed of?

A

It is composed on 2 polynucleotide strands, joined together and twisted to form a double helix structure

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17
Q

What bonds are the DNA strands joined by?

A

Hydrogen binds between the specific pairs of bases

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18
Q

What is complementary base pairing?

A

How many bonds they are able to form when binded together.

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19
Q

What does adenine pair with and how many bonds do they form?

A
  • thymine
  • 2 hydrogen bonds
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20
Q

What does Guanine pair with and how many bonds do they form?

A
  • cytosine
  • 2 hydrogen bonds
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21
Q

What does cytosine pair with and how many bonds do they form?

A
  • Guanine
  • 3 hydrogen bonds
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22
Q

What does Guanine pair with and how many bonds do they form?

A
  • cytosine
  • 3 hydrogen bonds
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23
Q

What is the base pairing rule with purines and pyrimidines?

A
  • smaller pyrimidines always pair up with larger purines
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24
Q

What is the rule between A & T or G & C ?

A

The number of A & T molecules will always be equal and the number of C & G will always be equal.

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25
Q

What does it mean if 2 strands are antiparallel?

A

The two strands are arranged so that they run in opposite directions.

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26
Q

Is DNA twisted into a double helix?

A
  • Yes
  • the 2 joined polynucleotide strands are then twisted into a double helix and held by hydrogen bonds.
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27
Q

How does coiled DNA relate to its function?

A
  • It has a compact shape
  • can be stored in a small space - nucleus
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28
Q

How does base sequence relate to its function?

A

It acts as the genetic code

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29
Q

How does the double stranded DNA structure relate to its function?

A

Allows for accurate replication of DNA when needed

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30
Q

How does the double helix DNA structure relate to its function?

A

Makes it a more stable structure and this protects the genetic code from damage

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31
Q

Why do we grind the sample in a mortar and pestle?

A

This breaks down the cell wall

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32
Q

Why do we mix the sample with the detergents?

A
  • This breaks the cell membrane, releasing the cell contents into solutions
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33
Q

Why do we add salt to the sample?

A

This breaks the hydrogen bonds between the DNA and the water molecules

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34
Q

Why so we add a layer of ethanol on top of the sample?

A

alcohol causes the DNA to precipitate out of the solution

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35
Q

What does ATP stand for?

A

Adenosine Tri Phosphate

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36
Q

Structure of ATP?

A
  • always has the base ADENINE
  • sugar ribose
  • 3 phosphate heads
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37
Q

Why does the cell require energy?

A

-synthesis - e.g. for large molecules like proteins
- transport - pumping molecules across the cell membrane
- movement - e.g. protein fibres cause muscle contraction

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38
Q

What happens when ATP is broken down?

A
  • Forms ADP and Pi
  • by hydrolysis reaction
  • releases energy
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39
Q

Where is ATP made in the cell?

A

In the mitochondria

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40
Q

Where does aerobic respiration produce ATP from?

A

glucose and oxygen

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41
Q

How does the structure of ATP make it a good energy source? (1)

A
  • small molecule - easy to move around within a cell
  • water solution - reactions that require energy in cells occur in aqeuous solutions
42
Q

How does the structure of ATP make it a good energy source? (2)

A
  • releases small amounts of energy - hydrolysis of a single ATP molecule releases a suitable amount of energy to dive on cellular respiration
43
Q

How does the structure of ATP make it a good energy source? (3)

A

Easily regenerated: when ATP is used, it is quickly regenerated by aerobic respiration in the cell

44
Q

Why does DNA need to replicate itself?

A
  • Cells carries out Mitosis, forms 2 daughter cells genetically identical to the original.
  • Before a cell carries out Meiosis it needs to replicate the DNA to be shared against the 4 daughter cells.
45
Q

(DNA replication) - What is the first step of DNA replication?

A

2 strands in the DNA double helix unwinds and separates, exposing the bonds?

46
Q

(DNA replication) - How does the DNA double helix wind?

A

It uses the enzyme DNA helicase

47
Q

(DNA replication) - What bonds are broken when the helix unwinds?

A

Hydrogen bonds
which are broken between the complementary bases so the 2 strands separate

48
Q

(DNA replication) - Are there any free nucleotides in the cell?

A

Yes, there are free DNA nucleotides in the cell nucleus

49
Q

(DNA replication) - What happens when the 2 strands separate?

A

The free nucleotides will line up next to the exposed bases, by complementary base pairing

50
Q

(DNA replication) - What bonds form between the exposed bases?

A

New hydrogen bonds form between the exposed bases on the original strand and the new ones

51
Q

(DNA replication) - as well as bonds, what else is formed?

A

New sugar phosphate back bones are formed (phosphodiester bonds form) - involves enzyme DNA polymerase

52
Q

(DNA replication) - what enzyme forms the sugar phosphate back bones?

A

DNA polymerase

53
Q

Why is it called semi conservative DNA replication?

A

It has one original strand and has one new strand

54
Q

Does DNA in all organisms replicate the same way?

A

yes it does

55
Q

What direction can the DNA polymerase move?

A

One direction (3’ to 5’)

56
Q

What is the leading strand?

A

One of the strands is continuously replicated

57
Q

What is the lagging strand?

A

The other strand that has to be copied in sections as it unwinds.

58
Q

What is a mutation?

A

A change in the DNA base sequences

59
Q

what are the consequences of a mutation?

A
  • Changes in the primary structure of the protein.
  • may result in a change to the protein being coded for or may no longer function properly.
60
Q

What is a gene?

A

A section of DNA that contains the complete sequence of bases to code for a protein.

61
Q

What 3 types of RNA are there?

A
  • mRNA
  • tRNA
  • rRNA
62
Q

What is mRNA?

A
  • (messenger RNA)
  • single polynucleotide strand
  • made in the nucleus during transcription
63
Q

What is mRNA main role?

A
  • carries the genetic code from the DNA in the nucleus to the cytoplasm, where it is used to make a protein during translation
64
Q

What are codons?

A

groups of three adjacent bases in mRNA

65
Q

what is tRNA?

A
  • transfer mRNA
  • single polynucleotide strand that is folded into a clove shape
  • hydrogen bonds between specific base pairs hold the molecule in shape.
66
Q

What is an anticodon?

A

when a tRNA molecule has a specific sequence of three bases at one end.

67
Q

What is the main role of tRNA?

A

-found in the cytoplasm
- involved in translation
- carries the amino acids that are used to make proteins to the ribosomes.

68
Q

Are anticodons on the tRNA complementary to codons on mRNA?

A

yes

69
Q

What is rRNA?

A
  • ribosomal rna
  • forms 2 subunits in a ribosome, along with proteins.
  • ribosomes move along the mRNA strand during protein synthesis.
70
Q

What is the main role of rRNA?

A

It helps catalyse the formation of peptide bonds between the amino acids.

71
Q

Why is it called ribosomal RNA?

A

it makes up the ribosomes

72
Q

What does it mean the genetic code is a triplet code?

A

Each amino acid is coded for by a sequence of 3 bases.

73
Q

What are the two stages of protein synthesis?

A

Transcription and Translation

74
Q

Why does protein synthesis occur?

A

The DNA is too big to leave the nucleus and cannot travel to a ribosome, so the DNA is coverted to mRNA.

75
Q

Which stage of protein synthesis occurs first?

A

Transcription

76
Q

Where does transcription occur?

A

Nucleus

77
Q

(Transcription) - stage 1 - what is the first stage of transcription which involves the enzyme DNA helicase?

A
  • DNA helicase attaches to the DNA at the beginning of the gene.
  • Causes the unwinding of the DNA helix and breaks the hydrogen bonds.
78
Q

(Transcription) - stage 2 - what happens after the unwinding of the DNA helix?

A
  • The two strands separate
  • one strand is the coding strand
  • the other strand is the template strand
79
Q

(Transcription)- stage 3 - What does the template strand do?

A

It is used to make the a mRNA copy of DNA.
(U replaces T)

80
Q

(Transcription)- stage 4 - What do the free nucleotides do?

A
  • The free nucleotides are present in the cell nucleus
  • they line up by complementary bases pairing next to the exposed DNA bases on the template strand.
81
Q

(Transcription)- stage 5 - what does RNA polymerase do?

A

RNA polymerase joins the sugar phsophate back bones of the new mRNA molecules being made, until its complete.

82
Q

(Transcription)- stage 6 - What happens when the enzyme has passed a section?

A

The DNA molecule reforms
(2 strands re-join)

83
Q

(Transcription)- stage 7 - what is the final step of transcription?

A

the mRNA carries the same code as the DNA coding strand
- except U has replaced T)

84
Q

What are introns?

A

the non-coding part of the amino acids

85
Q

What happens to the introns/ how is pre-mRNA produced?

A
  • introns are copied from the DNA to mRNA
    producing pre-mRNA
86
Q

What happens to the introns/ how is functional mRNA produced?

A

they cut out of the mRNA using enzyme before it leaves the nucleus
- produces functional mRNA
- mRNA is capped before it leaves the nucleus to prevent it from being damaged in the cytoplasm

87
Q

What happens when the functional mRNA leaves the nucleus?

A
  • it travels to the ribosomes
88
Q

Where does translation occur?

A

In the ribosomes

89
Q

(Translation) - stage 1 - what is the first step of translation?

A
  • The genetic code on the mRNA will be used to assemble a corresponding chain of amino acids
90
Q

(Translation) - stage 2 - what happens when the mRNA attaches to the ribosomes?

A

-the mRNA attaches to the ribosomes, every group of 3 bases on the mRNA is called a codon

91
Q

(Translation) - stage 3 - what does the tRNA molecules contain?

A

It contains triplets at one end called anticidons.
- these line up next to the codons on the mRNA complementary base pairing (temporary hydrogen bonds)

92
Q

(Translation) - stage 4 - what does the the end of the tRNA molecule have attached?

A

the other end of the tRNA molecule has a specific amino acid attached

93
Q

(Translation) - stage 5 - what happens after the ribosomes hold the two RNA molecules?

A
  • The ribosomes hold the tRNA molecules in position at the same time, allowing their amino acids to join by a peptide bond
94
Q

(Translation) - stage 6 - what happens when the first tRNA molecule leaves the ribosome?

A
  • the tRNA molecule leaves the ribosomes, leaving its amino acids behind and another tRNA arrives with its amino acid.
95
Q

(Translation) - stage 7 - how do the amino acids join?

A
  • the ribosomes move along so that the next two tRNA molecules are in position, allowing their amino acids to join, peptide bonds forms, then the second tRNA molecule moves away
  • the process continues
96
Q

(Translation) - stage 8 - How long does the process go on for?

A

Happens until the a “STOP” codon on the mRNA is reached, signalling that the polypetide is now complete.

97
Q

(Translation) - stage 9 - where is the polypetide released?

A

Tje polypeptide is released into the cyoplasm, this is the primary protein structure, and then build up further into a complete functionin protein

98
Q

What does it mean the code is degenerate?

A

there are more possible triplet codes (64) than there are amino acids (20)

99
Q

What does it mean that the code is non-overlapping?

A

The base code does not share their bases, each triplet is distinct from the next

100
Q

what does it mean the code is universal?

A

All organisms use the same code although the sequences of base coding for each individual protein will be different

101
Q

What are some differences between RNA and DNA

A

DNA
- double stranded
- thymine
- deoxyribose
- double helix of 2 antiparallel polynucleotide chains
- one type of DNA with numerous variations
- used as a long term storage of genetic information
- long lived stable molecule

RNA
- single stranded
- uracil
- ribose
- one polynucleotide chain twists into a helix
three types of RNA (mRNA, tRNA, rRNA)
- role - protein syntheis
- short- lived and not stable

Biology: Paper 1: Biological Processes (12 decks)

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