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Anatomy & Physiology 1 > Module 2 > Flashcards

Module 2 Flashcards

1
Q

Gross anatomy

A

the study of the organs and structures of the human body visible to the naked eye

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2
Q

Lung Shape

A

The lungs are not symmetrical. This asymmetry is due the position of the heart, which is situated slightly to the left of the median plane

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3
Q

Right Lung Lobes

A

The right lung has three lobes: superior, middle, and inferior. It had oblique fissures separating the lobes. The right lung also has a horizontal fissure separating the superior and middle lobes.

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4
Q

Left Lung lobes

A

The left has two lobes: superior and inferior. It has oblique fissures separating the lobes

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5
Q

hilum

A

The “root” of the lung. This is where the pulmonary vessels and bronchi enter each lung

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6
Q

pleurae

A

membranes that cover the surface of the lung and the cavity surrounding the lungs. The pleurae reduce friction and provide a negative pressure environment needed for lung inflation. The pleurae also help to pull the lungs open with the chest wall during inhalation.

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7
Q

visceral pleura

A

directly covers the lungs

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8
Q

parietal pleura

A

covers the surfaces surrounding the lungs: the rib cage, diaphragm, and mediastinum.

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9
Q

pleural space or cavity

A

The space that is formed between the pleurae

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10
Q

3 main functions of respiratory system

A

1) air conduction, 2) air filtration, and 3) exchange of gases

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11
Q

respiration

A

the exchange of gases

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12
Q

6 Conducting portions of the lungs

A

i. Nostril - nasal cavities
ii. Pharynx: nasopharynx, oropharynx, laryngopharynx
iii. Larynx
iv. Trachea
v. Paired main (primary) bronchi (bronchi is the plural form of bronchus)
vi. Bronchioles: secondary and tertiary

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13
Q

3 parts of the pharynx

A

nasopharynx, oropharynx, laryngopharynx

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14
Q

2 types of Bronchioles

A

secondary and tertiary

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15
Q

3 Filtration portions of lungs

A

i. Nostrils: hairs, cilia, and mucus producing goblet cells

ii. Trachea and bronchi: cilia and mucus producing goblet cells

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16
Q

Nostrils have

A

hairs, cilia, and mucus producing goblet cells

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17
Q

Trachea and bronchi have

A

cilia and mucus producing goblet cells

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18
Q

4 Respiratory portions of lungs

A

i. Respiratory bronchioles
ii. Alveolar ducts
iii. Alveolar sacs
iv. Alveoli

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19
Q

The human respiratory system

A

includes all structures that conduct air to and from the lungs

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20
Q

nasal cavities or fossae

A

composed of bone and cartilage, The left and right fossae are separated by the nasal septum

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21
Q

vestibule

A

most external portion of the nasal cavity just inside the nostrils covered by stratified squamous epithelium (continuation of the outside skin)

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22
Q

vibrissae

A

Short thick hairs act as a screening device for the respiratory tract

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23
Q

nasal conchae

A

folds found past the vestibule, increasing the surface area so that the incoming air can be warmed and humidified

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24
Q

Why do nose bleeds commonly occur?

A

because the nasal cavity is highly vascularized (has a large number of blood vessels) in order to warm the air.

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25
Q

3 regions of pharynx

A

nasopharynx
oropharynx
laryngopharynx

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26
Q

nasopharynx

A

the connection area between the nasal cavity and pharynx, generally above the soft palate

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27
Q

Eustachian tubes

A

connect the nasopharynx to each middle ear.

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28
Q

oropharynx

A

caudal to the mouth and anterior to the epiglottis

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29
Q

laryngopharynx

A

the area where the pharynx, larynx, and esophagus meet. It is superior and posterior to the larynx

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30
Q

hard palate

A

separate the nasal cavities from the mouth

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31
Q

soft palate

A

separate the nasal cavities from the mouth

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32
Q

aspiration

A

when food or liquid accidentally enters the trachea. This can happen because the air and food passages cross in the pharynx

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33
Q

3 Benefits of a shared pharynx passage

A

This lets air enter through the mouth in case the nasal cavity is obstructed (such as nasal congestion).

The shared passage also allows for relatively normal breathing during eating.

This relationship permits greater intake of air during heavy exercise, when greater gas exchange is required.

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34
Q

glottis

A

is an opening into the larynx, or voice box

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35
Q

Vocal cords

A

vocal folds (“true vocal cords”). Flexible and pliable bands of connective tissue vibrate and produce sound when air is expelled past them through the glottis from the larynx. They are at the edges of the glottis, embedded in mucous membranes

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36
Q

larynx

A

Attached to the trachea. The larynx and the trachea are permanently held open to receive air. The larynx is made up of single cartilages and paired cartilages.

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37
Q

3 single cartilages

A

epiglottis
cricoid cartilage
thyroid cartilage

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38
Q

epiglottis

A

guards the superior opening of the larynx

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39
Q

thyroid cartilage

A

called the “Adam’s apple” and is larger in males

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40
Q

3 Paired cartilages

A

arytenoid cartilage
corniculate cartilage
cuneiform cartilages

These are smaller than the single cartilages

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41
Q

trachea

A

is held open by a series of C-shaped, cartilaginous rings that do not completely meet on the posterior side of the trachea

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42
Q

trachealis (smooth) muscle

A

Posterior part of trachea. The “open” region of the trachea is bridged by this and a ligament

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43
Q

expectorated

A

spit up

44
Q

pneumonia

A

Infection of the lungs. Aspiration can cause this if there is a large amount of food or liquid that is aspirated and travels to the lungs.

45
Q

3 Steps of the swallowing process

A

1) The larynx rises, and the trachea is closed by a flap of tissue called the epiglottis.The epiglottis moves inferiorly to cover the trachea to prevent food or liquid from entering the lungs.
2) A posterior and superior movement of the soft palate covers the entrance of the nasal passages. The upward movement of the soft palate prevents food or liquid from entering the nasal passages during the swallowing process.
3) The food then enters the esophagus, which lies posterior to the larynx and trachea.

46
Q

Main bronchi

A

2 main bronchi that enter the right and left lungs; each then branches into a great number of smaller passages called bronchioles. The two main bronchi resemble the trachea in structure, but as the bronchial tubes divide and subdivide, their walls become thinner, and rings of cartilage are no longer present.

47
Q

Bronchi

A

Represent the transition from the single conduction pathway of the upper airways into the large surface area required for gas exchange.

48
Q

bronchioles

A

When the main bronchi branch into a great number of smaller passages

49
Q

Respiratory epithelium

A

lines the entire bronchial tree

50
Q

Two main bronchi

A

The trachea bifurcates into two main stem bronchi:

(primary) bronchi, (secondary) lobar bronchi.

51
Q

Secondary bronchi

A

branch into the lungs. 3 into the right lung and 2 into the left lung. The main bronchi look like the trachea, but as they branch and become smaller the cartilaginous content decreases.

52
Q

Tertiary bronchi

A

as the bronchi continue to subdivide, until reaching 1 mm in diameter.

53
Q

Bronchioles

A

When the tertiary bronchi reach 1 mm in diameter, they form the interface between the conducting portion and respiratory portions of the respiratory system. Bronchioles terminate in alveoli, which are surrounded by capillary beds to enable the exchange of carbon dioxide and oxygen within the lungs.

54
Q

2 types of bronchioles

A

Terminal bronchioles

Respiratory bronchioles

55
Q

Terminal bronchioles

A

the smallest air conducting bronchioles

56
Q

Respiratory bronchioles

A

the transitional zone in the respiratory system concerned with both air conduction and gas exchange.

57
Q

alveoli

A

Within the alveolar sacs elongated space enclosed by a multitude of tiny air pockets. Where the respiratory bronchiole terminates. There are millions of alveoli inside the lungs to enable the exchange of gases. Alveoli represent the site of gas exchange as well as the blood-air barrier

58
Q

Alveolar ventilation

A

movement of air into and out of the alveoli

59
Q

Alveolar sacs

A

grape-like clusters of alveoli

60
Q

concentration gradient

A

Oxygen diffusing into the blood from each lung and CO2 diffusing out of the blood into the lungs is based on the concentration gradient of each gas. Gases also follow their concentration gradient, moving from a higher to lower concentration. This generally results in O2 moving into the blood and CO2 moving out of the blood.

61
Q

goblet cells

A

produces mucus and helps trap debris before going into the lungs-shaped like a wine glass

62
Q

2 types of nasal cavities

A

vestibule

nasal septum

63
Q

Histology

A

the study of the cellular anatomy of a tissue or organ that can be viewed through a microscope

64
Q

respiratory epithelium

A

(or lining of the respiratory tract) is primarily made of ciliated, pseudostratified, columnar cells

65
Q

cilia

A

small hair-like projections

66
Q

apical side

A

at the apex or top of the cells

67
Q

pseudostratified

A

they appear to be in layers

68
Q

basement membrane

A

or “floor” of the epithelial tissue

69
Q

columnar cells

A

cells that are are taller than they are wide

70
Q

stratified squamous epithelium

A

Stratified means layered and squamous means flattened so it is found in multiple flattened layers found in vestibule right inside nostril

71
Q

Simple squamous

A

refers to a single layer of flattened cells found in smaller bronchioles

72
Q

The primary function of the cells within the alveoli

A

to allow efficient exchange of gases between the air and blood

73
Q

surfactant

A

A lipoprotein, covers the luminal surface and keeps the alveoli from sticking together during exhalation

Without surfactant the open, circular structure of the alveoli cannot maintain their shape, making the exchange of gases difficult or impossible. The lungs of premature babies often have not developed the ability to make surfactant. This is the reason many preemies have respiratory problems after birth and need to remain hospitalized until their lungs fully develop.

74
Q

alveolar macrophages

A

type of cell found within the alveoli also known as dust cells. The most abundant cell within the alveoli. They phagocytize toxic particles, allergens, or infectious material. They are the primary immune defense system of the alveoli. Once a macrophage has phagocytized a particle or pathogen, it migrates toward the ciliary surface of the bronchiolar system. Once on the surface, the cilia carry the macrophage and particles to the mouth to be expectorated or swallowed.

75
Q

4 Steps of Respiration

A
  1. Breathing
  2. External respiration
  3. Internal respiration
  4. Aerobic cellular respiration
76
Q

Breathing

A

includes inspiration (breathing air in) and expiration (breathing air out)

77
Q

External respiration

A

gas exchange with the environment at a respiratory surface

78
Q

Internal respiration

A

gas exchange between blood and tissue fluid

79
Q

Aerobic cellular respiration

A

production of ATP (adenosine triphosphate) in cells

80
Q

3 things for diffusion to be effective in the gas-exchange region

A

(1) moist
(2) thin
(3) large in relation to the size of the body.

81
Q

hemoglobin

A

an oxygen carrying molecule

82
Q

Ventilation

A

happens as the lungs move air into the respiratory tract (inhalation) and out of the respiratory tract (exhalation). A negative pressure environment is created inside the lungs by the pleural space, which means that the pressure inside this space is less than that of the atmosphere.

83
Q

inhalation

A

the rib cage lifts superiorly and anteriorly to open up and expand the lungs. The diaphragm is flattened as it contracts, pulling the lungs open. As the thoracic cavity expands and lung volume increases, the density of the gases filling the lungs decreases. Because air pressure outside of the lungs is now greater than inside (where there is negative pressure), air will naturally flow into the lungs.

84
Q

exhalation

A

the rib cage is lowered, the diaphragm rises, the thoracic pressure increases, and air will naturally move out of the lungs where the pressure is lower. The lungs do not completely empty during each breathing cycle

85
Q

lungs do not completely empty during each breathing cycle this is called:

A

incomplete ventilation

86
Q

this primarily accounts for the exchange of gases between the air in the alveoli and the blood in the pulmonary capillaries:

A

diffusion

87
Q

Hemoglobin

A

helps to assist natural diffusion. Most oxygen entering the blood combines with hemoglobin (found in red blood cells)

88
Q

oxyhemoglobin

A

when oxygen entering the blood combines with hemoglobin

89
Q

carbaminohemoglobin

A

when hemoglobin combines with carbon dioxide

90
Q

bicarbonate ion

A

created when Carbonic anhydrase combines with carbon dioxide and water

91
Q

an enzyme in red blood cells

A

Carbonic anhydrase

92
Q

atmospheric pressure at sea level

A

= 760 mm Hg (mercury) = 1 atm (one Atmosphere)

93
Q

Boyle’s Law

A

The pressure of a given quantity of gas is inversely proportional to its volume. This means that there is higher pressure in a smaller volume or less pressure in a greater volume. Boyle’s law is a relationship between gas and pressure. This helps explain why inspiration and expiration can take place.

94
Q

Charles’s Law

A

The volume of a given quantity of gas is directly proportional to its temperature. Charles’s law helps explain why warming air is beneficial to the respiratory system. The higher the temperature the greater gas volume, or the lower temperature the lower gas volume.

95
Q

Dalton’s Law

A

The total pressure of a gas mixture is equal to the sum of the partial pressures (pp) of the individual gases. (i.e. ppO2 + ppCO2 + ppN2 = 1 atmosphere). There are different gas quantities or partial pressures in the body. The concentrations and partial pressures of gasses will affect the diffusion of those gases.

96
Q

spirometer measures these 4 things:

A

Tidal Volume (TV)
Inspiratory Reserve Volume (IRV)
Expiratory Reserve Volume (ERV)
Residual Volume (RV)

97
Q

Vital Capacity (VC) =

A

ERV+TV+IRV

98
Q

Total Lung Capacity (TLC) =

A

VC +RV

99
Q

Inspiratory Capacity (IC) =

A

TV+IRV (or) VC-ERV

100
Q

Functional Residual Capacity (FRC) =

A

RV+ERV

101
Q

RR

A

respiratory rate, (typically measured in breaths per minute)

102
Q

Emphysema

A

causes damage to the alveoli.

Eventually, the damage causes the inner walls of the alveoli to become weak and rupture.

The loss of alveoli causes a loss of alveolar ventilation ability and a loss of total gas exchange.

Breathing becomes very difficult for these patients even at rest.

Smoking is often a cause of this disease.

103
Q

Cystic fibrosis

A

hereditary disease.

Cystic fibrosis impacts cells throughout the body, but the most notable impact is within the epithelial cells of the respiratory tract.

The cells produce mucus without enough saline.

This causes mucous to become too thick so it clogs the respiratory tract. Chronic respiratory infections eventually lead to respiratory failure.

Cystic fibrosis patients have a shortened life expectancy because of these medical complications.

104
Q

Pulmonary edema

A

is an accumulation of fluid in the lungs.

caused by several diseases, such as infections, cancers, and congestive heart diseases.

When a doctor listens to the lungs (auscultates) of a patient with pulmonary edema, the fluid makes crackle sounds. This sound happens as the fluid-filled alveoli “pop” open with each breath.

105
Q

Pleurisy

A

or pleuritis is inflammation of the pleura (lining of the lungs) due to infection, cancer, or injury.

In this condition, the pleural space fills up with air, pus, blood, or other fluids.

Pleuritis causes sharp chest pain that worsens with breathing. The layers of the pleural cavity rub against each other creating friction.

The increased fluid in the pleural cavity can make it difficult for a doctor to even hear a person’s heart sounds when auscultating their chest.

106
Q

auscultates

A

When a doctor listens to the lungs

107
Q

pathology

A

studying, classifying and describing a disease

Anatomy & Physiology 1 (7 decks)

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