Module 1 Flashcards
6 levels of organization in the body:
Chemical level Cellular level Tissue level Organ level Organ system level Organism level
Chemical level
looks at atoms, the smallest building blocks of matter
Cellular level
looks at cells, the smallest units of living organisms
Tissue level
looks at various cells and how they function when they come together
Tissues & the 4 types
a group of cells that perform a common function
Epithelial tissue
Connective tissue
Muscle tissue
Nervous tissueEpithelial level
covers the outside of the body and lines the body’s cavities.
Muscle
allows for movement of the body- attaches to bone.
Connective tissues & 4 types
offers support and protection to the body’s organs
Blood
Ligaments
Tendons
bonesNervous tissue
responsible for the communication between cells of the body by forming a system of electrical impulses that communicate rapidly.
Organ structure level
tissues come together to create the organ structure level.
11 Organ systems
Integumentary Cardiovascular Respiratory Urinary Reproductive Endocrine Nervous Lymphatic Muscular Skeletal Digestive
Organism
All of the systems work together to create this, a living thing.
6 main systems of the body
Integumentary Skeletal Muscular Digestive Endocrine Nervous
Integumentary system
Skin system, made up of the epidermis, dermis, hypodermis. Has sweat and oil glands that help insulate and regulate body temperature. Has pain and pressure receptors.
Skeletal system
serves as the framework for the muscular system and supports the body’s organs
Muscular system
allows for movement of the body. Muscles attach to bones to bring movement to the skeletal system.
Nervous system
provides internal communication among the cells of the body.
Digestive system
breaks down food into small molecules.
Endocrine system
made up of glands that make hormones, which regulate the reproductive system and the metabolism of the body.
metabolism
is all of the chemical reactions that take place in the body to enable us to function.
anabolism
is the synthesizing of more complex structures from simpler ones.
Cardiovascular system
made up of blood vessels that move blood, oxygen, and nutrients throughout the body.
Lymphatic system
responsible for immunity and fighting off disease.
Respiratory system
involved in excretion of waste CO2, which is a byproduct of metabolism.
Urinary system
involved in excretion of waste from the body.
Male and female reproductive systems
responsible for creating new life.
Superior (cranial)
toward the head end or upper part of a structure or the body (above).
Inferior (caudal)
away from the head end or toward the lower part of a structure or the body (below).
Ventral (anterior)
toward or at the front of the body (in front of).
Dorsal (posterior)
toward the back or at the back of the body (behind).
Medial
toward or at the midline of the body (on the inner side of)
Lateral
away from the midline or the body (on the outer side of)
Intermediate
between a more medial and a more lateral structure
Proximal
closer to the origin of the body part or the point of attachment of a limb to the body trunk
Distal
farther from the origin of the body part or the point of attachment of a limb to the body trunk
Superficial (external)
toward or at the body surface
Deep (internal)
away from the body surface (more internal)
Flexion
closing of a joint, “bending”
Extension
opening of a joint, “straightening”
Abduction
movement away from midline
Adduction
movement towards midline
Dorsiflexion
flexion superiorly occurring at the subtalar (ankle) joint (movement of the toes “up”)
Plantarflexion
flexion inferiorly occurring at the subtalar (ankle) joint (movement of the toes “down”)
Radial Deviation
lateral movement of the wrist towards the radius
Ulnar Deviation
medial movement of the wrist towards the ulna
Pronation
rotation of the forearm so that the palm faces posteriorly or rotation of the ankle so the sole of the foot faces laterally
Supination
rotation of the forearm so that the palm faces anteriorly or rotation of the ankle so the sole of the foot faces medially
Note: Hands are supinated in anatomical position.
Elevation
upward movement of a structure
Depression
downward movement of a structure
Retraction
movement of a structure to be drawn in the posterior direction (drawn backward)
Protraction
movement of a structure to be drawn in the anterior direction (drawn forward)
Anatomical position
is the reference point of a standard body position. In the anatomical position, the body is vertical with feet slightly apart. It looks like someone who is standing at attention. The palms of the hands face forward (in supination), and the thumbs point away from the body.
axial
makes up the axis of the body and includes the head, neck, and trunk.
appendicular
part of the body consists of the appendages or limbs that are attached to axis of the body as well as the pelvic and pectoral (shoulder) girdles that serve as a point of attachment.
sagittal plane
A sagittal plane is a vertical plane that divides the body into right and left sections.
Frontal plane
divides the body into anterior and posterior sections.
transverse plane
plane is known as a horizontal plane.
dorsal cavity
primarily protects the nervous system organs, which tend to be very fragile.
cranial cavity
sits in the skull and houses the brain.
spinal cavity
runs within the bony vertebral column and encases the spinal cord.
ventral body cavity
anterior and the larger of the two cavities. Within the ventral cavity are the thoracic cavity and abdominopelvic cavity. The ventral cavity houses the visceral organs.
thoracic cavity
protected by the ribs and muscles found within the chest
pleural cavities
2, each contain a lung
pericardial cavity
surrounds the heart
abdominopelvic cavity
has two parts: the abdominal cavity and pelvic cavity.
abdominal cavity
superior portion of abdominopelvic cavity, houses the stomach, intestines, spleen, and liver.
pelvic cavity
lies in the bony pelvis and houses the bladder, reproductive organs, and the rectum.
pleurisy
which is an inflammation of the pleurae.
umbilical region
surrounds the navel
epigastric region
above or superior to the umbilical region.
hypogastric region
is located below, or inferior to, the umbilical region
right and left iliac
or hypogastric regions, are located beside or lateral to the hypogastric region. The iliac is the superior part of the pelvic bone.
right and left lumbar regions
lie beside or lateral to the umbilical region.
right and left hypochondriac regions
lie beside the epigastric region.
oral cavity
contains the mouth, teeth, and tongue
nasal cavity
located within and posterior to the nose.
orbital cavities
in the skull house the eyes
middle ear cavities
in the skull and lie medial to the eardrums.
synovial cavities
the joint cavities.
serosa
The walls of the ventral body cavity as well as the outer surface of the organs are covered by this serous membrane. The serosa is lubricated by serous fluid that is secreted by the membrane itself.
cell
the basic unit of life. A cell is the smallest unit that can carry out all activities we associate with life.
cell theory
says that cells are the basic living units of organization and function in all organisms and that all cells come from other cells.
Organelles
are to a cell what organs are to a human
plasma membrane
surrounds all cells and contains specialized “pumps” and “gates” that regulate the passage of materials in and out of the cell.
Prokaryotic cell
Bacteria are prokaryotic cells. Cells are considered simple cells for three reasons. 1) They are typically smaller than eukaryotic cells. Most are between 1-10 μm (micrometers) in size (about 1/30,000 of an inch); therefore, they are just visible with the light microscope. 2) The DNA of a prokaryotic cell is not enclosed in a nuclear membrane (prokaryotic means “before the nucleus”). 3) Prokaryotic cells do not contain many of the internal membrane-bound organelles of eukaryotic cells.
RNA
ribonucleic acid- ribosomes are composed of this
endospore
a dormant, extremely durable cell. Botulism is an example of this.
Eukaryotic cell
(complex cells) are ten to one hundred times larger than prokaryotic cells, possess a nuclear membrane (eukaryotic means “true nucleus”), and contain many membrane-bound organelles
nucleus
surrounded by a nuclear membrane (envelope), is the most prominent organelle in the cell. It contains DNA and serves as the control center of the cell.
Chromosomes
the organized or “packaged” form of DNA inside a cell.
Genes
Sections of these nucleotide sequences are called genes. Genes determine what proteins are synthesized in the ribosomes.
messenger RNA (mRNA)
Transfers DNA to the ribosomes
RNA (rRNA)
is he RNA found in the ribosomes, called ribosomal RNA
Ribosomes
tiny manufacturing plants that assemble proteins.
ER
endoplasmic reticulum, is a maze of tightly packed and flattened, sac-like structures that form interconnected compartments within the cytoplasm.
rough ER
The sections of the endoplasmic reticulum that possess ribosomes appear “bumpy”
Smooth ER
no attached ribosomes and is responsible for the synthesis of lipids (liver has lots of smooth ER).
cytoplasm (cytosol)
the fluid portion of the cell and all the organelles outside of the nucleus.
Golgi complex
a.k.a (apparatus) is an organelle made up of a stack of many flattened sacs called cisternae. Parts of the Golgi complex are connected; however, most form separate compartments. The Golgi complex is responsible for receiving lipids and proteins synthesized by the endoplasmic reticulum, altering their structures and shipping them to other parts of the cell.
lysosomes
small sacs of digestive enzymes produced by the Golgi complex- the digestive enzymes break down biomacromolecules (proteins, lipids, carbohydrates, and nucleic acids) that originate inside or outside of the cell.
Tay-Sachs
genetic disease when one of the normally present digestive enzymes inside lysosomes is lacking. Thus, a toxic lipid in the brain cells cannot be broken down. The resulting buildup of lipids in these cells can cause intellectual disability and death.
Mitochondria
(singular, mitochondrion) is the organelle responsible for converting the chemical energy found in food into ATP.
ATP
Adenosine triphosphate. ATP is a high-energy molecule that provides energy for the cell.
aerobic cellular respiration
During cellular respiration oxygen is required to break down food (usually in the form of glucose). Carbon dioxide, water, and ATP are produced. Notice that this is very much like respiration (breathing) in your lungs, but at the cellular level.
intermembrane space
between the inner and outer membranes, and a matrix that forms the center of the mitochondrion, bound by just the inner membrane.
Plasma membrane
separates interior part of cell from exterior part of cell. Cell wall.
cytoskeleton
Eukaryotic cells also contain a cytoskeleton. The cytoskeleton consists of a network of protein fibers that provide structural support and movement within the cell.
Microtubules
hollow cylinders (like a tube) that are involved in the movement of chromosomes during cell division and in the structure of cilia and flagella.
microtubule-organizing centers (MTOC’s)
In order for the microtubules to perform their job, they generally need to be anchored somewhere in the cell. MTOCs are where they do this.
centrioles
made up of nine sets of three attached tubules arranged to form a hollow cylinder. Similar structures called basal bodies anchor cilia and flagella. Both centrioles and basal bodies play a role in microtubule assembly.
Microfilaments
flexible, solid fibers made up of two intertwined polymer chains of actin molecules.
cell coat
made of polysaccharide (carbohydrate) side chains, which project out from the proteins (glycoproteins), and lipids (glycolipids), which comprise the cell membrane. Most eukaryotic cells have one.
peptidoglycan
3-D mesh-like structure composed of sugars and amino acids (“peptid-“ refers to the peptide bonds and “glycan” refers to sugar).
gram-positive
bacteria possessing a very thick layer of peptidoglycan absorb and retain a violet stain
gram-negative
possess a very thin layer of peptidoglycan do not retain the violet stain
penicillin
antibiotic that interferes with the cell wall structure of gram-positive bacteria, resulting in a fragile cell wall that cannot protect the cell.
Light microscope
(the least expensive and most common) are also known as compound microscopes because they contain several lenses. Because light must pass through the specimen, only thin objects can be observed. Light microscopes have a maximum magnification of about 1000 times.
Electron microscopes
can magnify up to 250,000 times or more and have a resolution of more than 10,000 times that of the human eye.
transmission electron microscope
the specimen is cut into extremely thin sections (many times thinner than specimens commonly observed under a light microscope). Each section is passed under an electron beam, which forms an image on a photographic plate or fluorescent screen. To see the complete object, it would be necessary to view numerous consecutive sections.
scanning electron microscope
produces a 3-D picture of the surface of an object. The object is coated with a thin film of gold or other metal. Electrons do not pass through the object; instead, particles are emitted as the electrons strike the object. This produces an image of the external features of a specimen that would not otherwise be visible with a scanning electron microscope.
fluid-mosaic model
proposes that the membrane is a phospholipid bi-layer in which proteins are either partially or entirely embedded, like tiles in a mosaic picture.
amphipathic phospholipids
A membrane has, primarily, two components, lipids and proteins. Most of the lipids in the membrane are amphipathic phospholipids and arrange themselves into a bi-layer with their polar (hydrophilic) heads comprising the inner and outer faces of the membrane and their non-polar (hydrophobic) tails facing each other to form the core of the membrane.
Hydrophilic
means water loving
hydrophobic
means water hating
Cholesterol
(a steroid lipid) is largely hydrophobic (repels water) with a single polar hydroxyl group.
integral proteins
Proteins are the other major constituent of membranes and include integral proteins, which typically span across the lipid bi-layer. Integral proteins are firmly bound within the membrane. They usually have one or more hydrophobic regions embedded in the core of the lipid bi-layer with hydrophilic regions that extend out of each face. Some integral proteins are large enough to weave back and forth through the membrane several times.
Peripheral proteins
located only on the inner or outer surfaces of the membrane. Peripheral proteins can also attach to exposed regions of integral proteins.
selective permeability
of the membrane, allowing certain materials to pass in only one direction—nutrients move into the cell and wastes move out of the cell.
Diffusion
is the first method for particles to be able to cross a cell membrane. Small molecules move from an area of higher concentration on one side of the membrane to an area of lower concentration on the other side.
passive transport
Diffusion is also called passive transport because the cell does not need to expend energy in the diffusion process.
concentration gradient
a difference in the concentration of a substance from one place to another
osmosis
The diffusion of water
3 types of solute solution
isotonic, hypertonic, and hypotonic
Isotonic
refers to having an equal amount of solute on either side of a membrane.
hypertonic
(hyper- means “above”), the cell will lose water and shrink in size. This is because the hypertonic solution contains more solute particles than the cell and, conversely, has a lower water concentration.
hypotonic
the solute particles outside of a cell are of lesser concentration than inside the cell. Water concentration is greater outside of the cell and naturally causes the water to move inward causing the cell to swell and even burst.
Facilitated diffusion
the diffusion of lipid-insoluble molecules across a membrane
Active transport
occurs when molecules or ions are pumped from an area of lower concentration to one of greater concentration (against the concentration gradient).
sodium-potassium pump
example of active transport, maintains an electrical imbalance across the membrane. This pump is extremely important in cell life.
Exocytosis
occurs when a biomacromolecule is enclosed inside the membrane of a vesicle (usually formed by breaking off the Golgi complex), which then fuses with the cell membrane ejecting the biomacromolecule from the cell (exo- refers to “going out”).
Endocytosis
occurs when a biomacromolecule outside of the cell is enclosed in an invagination of the cell membrane, forming a vesicle inside the cell (endo- refers to “bringing in”). Endocytosis includes three specialized transportation methods: 1) phagocytosis, 2) pinocytosis, and 3) receptor-mediated endocytosis).
Phagocytosis
is endocytosis of extremely large objects, such as other cells. Once the cell is enclosed in a vesicle, it fuses with lysosomes inside the cell and is digested. White blood cells use phagocytosis to destroy harmful bacteria.
Pinocytosis
is endocytosis of tiny droplets of fluids. This process is like phagocytosis except the cell membrane “pinches” inward without needing to extend pseudopods to ingest material.
Receptor-mediated endocytosis
Another role of the proteins in cell membranes is information transfer from one cell to another. Receptor proteins (integral) in a cell membrane bind with a signaling molecule sent from another cell. The signaling molecule (known in general as a ligand) is often in the form of a hormone. The receptor protein is responsible for transferring the signal across the membrane. When the ligand binds to the receptor protein, it changes the shape of the protein. Because the receptor protein is in close proximity to other proteins, their shapes are also affected. This can result in specific enzymes being activated (enzymes are proteins that speed up chemical reactions). These enzymes can catalyze the release of energy from ATP or other high energy molecules which power metabolic and structural changes within the cell.
ligand
The signaling molecule often in the form of a hormone
enzymes
proteins that speed up chemical reactions
Lysosome
small sacs of digestive enzymes produced by the Golgi complex that break down biomacromolecules (proteins, lipids, carbohydrates, and nucleic acids) that originate inside or outside of the cell.
Extracellular matrix
contains tough protein fibers called collagen- many eukaryotic cells excrete this.
3 small bones in middle ear cavity
malleus, incus, stapes
Membranes
(both cell and organelle) are asymmetric with each face of the bi-layer differing in both lipid and protein content.
3 methods by which particles cross a selectively permeable membrane
1) diffusion
2) active transport
3) special methods of endocytosis and exocytosis
cell coat
surrounds a eukaryotic cell. The coat is made of polysaccharide (carbohydrate) side chains, which project out from the proteins (glycoproteins), and lipids (glycolipids), which comprise the cell membrane. These side chains allow cells to recognize one another, make contact, and, sometimes, to adhere to one another, such as in forming tissues.
